TENTH EDITION

Thinking Critically

John Chaffee, PhD 

Director, Center for Philosophy and Critical Thinking, 

City University of New York

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restri A QALY approach may then lead us to give priority to helping others who are not so 

badly off and whose conditions are less expensive to treat. I don't find it unfair to 

give the same weight to the interests of those who are well off as we give to those 

who are much worse off, but if there is a social consensus that we should give priority 

to those who are worse off, we can modify the QALY approach so that it gives greater 

weight to benefits that accrue to those who are, on the QALY scale, worse off than 

others. 

Whether decisions about allocating health care resources should take such personal 

circumstances into account isn't easy to decide. Not to do so makes the standard inflex- 

ible, but taking personal factors into account increases the scope for subjective--and 

prejudiced--judgments. 

The QALY is not a perfect measure of the good obtained by health care, but its 

defenders can support it in the same way that Winston Churchill defended democracy as 

a form of government: it is the worst method of allocating health care, except for all 

the others. If it isn't possible to provide everyone with all beneficial treatments, what 

better way do we have of deciding what treatments people should get than by compar- 

ing the QALYs gained with the expense of the treatments? 

Will Americans allow their government, either directly or through an independent 

agency like NICE, to decide which treatments are sufficiently cost-effective to be pro- 

vided at public expense and which are not? They might, under two conditions: first, that 

the option of private health insurance remains available, and second, that they are able 

to see, in their own pocket, the full cost of not rationing health care. 

Rationing public health care limits free choice if private health insurance is prohib- 

ited. But many countries combine free national health insurance with optional private 

insurance. Australia, where I've spent most of my life and raised a family, is one. The

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Constructing Extended Arguments 449

U.S. could do something similar. This would mean extending Medicare to the entire 

population, irrespective of age, but without Medicare's current policy that allows doc- 

tors wide latitude in prescribing treatments for eligible patients. Instead, Medicare for 

All, as we might call it, should refuse to pay where the cost per QALY is extremely high. 

(On the other hand, Medicare for All would not require more than a token copayment for 

drugs that are cost-effective.) The extension of Medicare could be financed by a small 

income-tax levy, for those who pay income tax--in Australia the levy is 1.5 percent 

of taxable income. (There's an extra 1 percent surcharge for those with high incomes 

and no private insurance. Those who earn too little to pay income tax would be car- 

ried at no cost to themselves.) Those who want to be sure of receiving every treatment 

that their own privately chosen physicians recommend, regardless of cost, would be 

free to opt out of Medicare for All as long as they can demonstrate that they have suf- 

ficient private health insurance to avoid becoming a burden on the community if they 

fall ill. Alternatively, they might remain in Medicare for All but take out supplementary 

insurance for health care that Medicare for All does not cover. Every American will have 

a right to a good standard of health care, but no one will have a right to unrationed 

health care. Those who opt for unrationed health care will know exactly how much it 

costs them. 

One final comment. It is common for opponents of health care rationing to point 

to Canada and Britain as examples of where we might end up if we get "socialized 

medicine." On a blog on Fox News earlier this year, the conservative writer John Lott 

wrote, "Americans should ask Canadians and Brits--people who have long suffered 

from rationing--how happy they are with central government decisions on eliminating 

'unnecessary' health care." There is no particular reason that the United States should 

copy the British or Canadian forms of universal coverage, rather than one of the differ- 

ent arrangements that have developed in other industrialized nations, some of which 

may be better. But as it happens, last year the Gallup organization did ask Canadians 

and Brits, and people in many different countries, if they have confidence in "health 

care or medical systems" in their country. In Canada, 73 percent answered this question 

affirmatively. Coincidentally, an identical percentage of Britons gave the same answer. In 

the United States, despite spending much more, per person, on health care, the figure 

was only 56 percent. 

Questions for Analysis 

1. Peter Singer contends that health care is already rationed because it is based 

on the level of health insurance we are able to afford. In the case of those 

receiving government supported health care (Medicare and Medicaid), which 

is paid for by your taxes, how much money should be spent to extend a 

patient's life for one year? 

2. Why does Singer believe that "rationing" has become a "dirty word" in the 

national debate over health care? Do you think avoiding using the word ration 

helps or hurts efforts to determine an enlightened health care policy? 

3. Why does Singer believe that the rationing of health care is inevitable and that 

it is better to acknowledge it and develop a rational policy regarding it, rather 

than pretend that it doesn't exist?

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Brief Contents

1 Thinking 2

2 Thinking Critically 50

3 Solving Problems 96

4 Perceiving and Believing 130

5 Constructing Knowledge 176

6 Language and Thought 226

7 Forming and Applying Concepts 276

8 Relating and Organizing 322

9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues 368

10 Constructing Arguments 414

11 Reasoning Critically 454

12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively 510

iii 

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For Jessie and Joshua

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Contents

Preface xiii

CHAPTER 1 Thinking 2 

Living an "Examined" Life 4 

A Roadmap to Your Mind 8 

Working Toward Goals 9 

Achieving Short-Term Goals 11 

Dan McCoy/Rainbow/Science Faction

Achieving Long-Term Goals 13

Thinking Critically 

Images, Decision Making, and Thinking About 

About Visuals Visual Information 14 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see 

Images, Perceiving, and Thinking 14 

on pages 5, 6, 16, 33, 

and 38. An Organized Approach to Making Decisions 20 

Living Creatively 25 

"Can I Be Creative?" 25 

Becoming More Creative 27 

Thinking Ahead 47 

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

page 34.

CHAPTER 2 Thinking Critically 50 

Thinking Actively 55 

Influences on Your Thinking 55 

Becoming an Active Learner 56 

Carefully Exploring Situations with Questions 57 

Thinking Independently 60

v 

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450 Chapter 10 Constructing Arguments

4. Singer contends that "If the U.S. system spent less on expensive treatments 

for those who, with or without the drugs, have at most a few months to live, it 

would be better able to save the lives of more people who, if they get the treat- 

ment they need, might live for several decades." Do you agree or disagree with 

this position? Why? 

5. Is everybody entitled to the same level of health care? Or should the health 

care you receive be based on how much you can afford? 

6. Explain the QALY (the "quality-adjusted-life-year") approach to evaluat- 

ing how health care should be resourced? Do you think this approach makes 

sense? Why or why not? How would you go about rationing health care if you 

were asked to by the president?

Rationing Medical Care: A Second Opinion 

by Leonard Laster

After listening to economists, physicians and politicians, among others, Oregonians have 

concluded that they can no longer afford unlimited medical care. The only way they see 

to control the rising costs of such care is to ration it. They have legislated a rationing 

system that has attracted national interest. It may turn out to be a trial run that could 

eventually affect all of us. 

On the surface, the arguments for rationing seem reasonable. Each year, health 

care costs rise much faster than inflation. New procedures and technologies appear 

at a breakneck pace and jack up medical expenses. Large segments of the population, 

such as older people, increase in number and need more complex care. Yet as a nation, 

we have only a limited amount of money to spend on treating the sick. 

By not recognizing this dilemma, by not realizing that we are, in fact, already 

rationing care and by not institutionalizing a fair and logical system for rationing, we 

fly in the face of common sense. We spend huge sums of money on individuals whose 

chances of benefiting are painfully small, such as elderly patients with only days or 

weeks to live, while depriving others, such as children and pregnant women, of care 

that could make a big difference at only a modest cost. 

Despite the compelling power of the reasoning, I'm not ready to go ahead, and I 

don't believe tha. 

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vi Contents

Viewing Situations from Different Perspectives 62 

Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reasons and Evidence 65 

© The Metropolitan Museum of Art/

Discussing Ideas in an Organized Way 68 

Thinking Critically Listening Carefully 70 

About Visuals Supporting Views with Reasons and Evidence 71 

Art Resource, NY

Learn to think critically 

about what you see on Responding to the Points Being Made 71 

pages 54, 62, 66, 72, 

80, and 87. Asking Questions 71 

Increasing Understanding 71 

Reading Critically 74 

Asking Questions 74 

Using a Problem-Solving Approach 76 

Thinking Critically 

Analyzing Issues 79 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically What Is the Issue? 81 

about new media on 

page 78. What Is the Evidence? 81 

What Are the Arguments? 84 

What Is the Verdict? 86

CHAPTER 3 Solving Problems 96 

Thinking Critically About Problems 98 

Introduction to Solving Problems 99 

Solving Complex Problems 101 

© Jonathan Fernstrom/Cultura/Jupiter Images

t those who are ready fully understand what rationing implies. We have 

not given enough consideration to other alternatives. The financial problem is serious, 

but by accepting the concept of rationing we cross a moral divide from which there may 

be no return. It is no small step to decide that we will require physicians, nurses and 

their colleagues to adhere to a formula that spells out who is worth saving and who is 

not. We should move cautiously and try to avoid mistakes. 

We've made some big mistakes in the past, especially in medical matters. In 

the early '70s, experts persuaded us to release the bulk of the mentally ill from 

the backwards of institutions. Lacking adequate community facilities, the patients 

ended up fending for themselves in a hostile environment, and as a result the men-

Source: "Rationing Medical Care: A Second Opinion," by Leonard Laster, Washington Post, 

August 30, 1990.

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Constructing Extended Arguments 451

tally ill now make up a major segment of the street people, many of them suffering 

worse fates than they did in the institutions. We cannot reverse this mistake easily 

or quickly. 

Let us not make another. We should learn much more about the implications of 

rationing before adopting it. Under rationing, we would undoubtedly decide not to fund 

expensive procedures, such as kidney dialysis or transplantation, for patients classified 

as too old. The British set the age limit for treatment of kidney failure at 55. In the 

abstract, such a decision may seem regrettable but unavoidable. Still, when the guide- 

lines affect a real person--such as yourself or a close relative--views change briskly. 

A friend of mine who taught English literature developed kidney failure at age 57. 

Because chronic dialysis was available to him, he was spared a sentence of early death 

and remained active for 10 more years, teaching and mentoring his grateful students. 

Was the money spent on giving this man 10 more years of productive life a waste? Did 

we really deprive some children of immunization against measles and polio because we 

spent the money prolonging the life of this teacher? Would rationing have been the 

more intelligent course? 

Under rationing, major new ideas for medical treatment would be discouraged as 

too expensive and unnecessary. The problem is, what seems far-out and frivolous today 

could become commonplace and essential tomorrow. In the early '50s, one of my surgery 

professors developed a new technique for operating inside the human heart to repair 

defective or damaged valves. Early Accepting the Problem 104 

Step 1: What Is the Problem? 105 

Step 2: What Are the Alternatives? 108 

Step 3: What Are the Advantages and/or Disadvantages 

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals of Each Alternative? 110 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see on 

Step 4: What Is the Solution? 112 

pages 102, 109, 110, 

113, and 118. 

Step 5: How Well Is the Solution Working? 115 

Solving Nonpersonal Problems 117

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

page 120.

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Contents vii

CHAPTER 4 Perceiving and Believing 130 

Actively Selecting, Organizing, and Interpreting Sensations 133 

People's Perceptions Differ 135 

© Radius Images/Jupiter Images

Online Resources 136 

Viewing the World Through "Lenses" 137 

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals What Factors Shape Perceptions? 139 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see on Perceiving and Believing 149 

pages 137, 143, 146, 

154, and 171. Believing and Perceiving 150 

Types of Beliefs: Reports, Inferences, Judgments 152 

Reporting Factual Information 155 

Inferring 158 

Judging 162 

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media Differences in Judgments 164 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

page 166.

CHAPTER 5 Constructing Knowledge 176 

Believing and Knowing 178 

Knowledge and Truth 180 

Stages of Knowing 181 

Thinking Critically About Your Beliefs 186 

AP Photo/Susan Sterner

Thinking Critically 

Using Perspective-Taking to Achieve Knowledge 194 

About Visuals 

Learn to think critically Beliefs Based on Indirect Experience 198 

about what you see on 

pages 188, 189, 192, How Reliable Are the Information and the Source? 199 

206, 208, and 217.

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

page 202.

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viii Contents

CHAPTER 6 Language and Thought 226 

The Evolution of Language 228 

The Symbolic Nature of Language 230 

Reuters/Ahmed Jadallah, Image by © Rueters/CORBIS

Semantic Meaning (Denotation) 232 

Perceptual Meaning (Connotation) 233 

Syntactic Meaning 233 

Pragmatic Meaning 234 

Using Language Effectively 240 

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals 

Using Language to Clarify Thinking 243 

Learn to think critically Improving Vague Language 247 

about what you see 

on pages 244, 246, Using Language in Social Contexts 250 

and 251. 

Language Styles 250 

Standard American English 251 

Slang 252 

Jargon 253 

The Social Boundaries of Language 253 

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media Using Language to Influence 254 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

Euphemistic Language 255 

page 260. Emotive Language 257

CHAPTER 7 Forming and Applying Concepts 276 

What Are Concepts? 278 

The Structure of Concepts 281 

Forming Concepts 283 

Applying Concepts 288 

Using Concepts to Classify 303 

AP Photo/Peter Kramer

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see on 

pages 286, 297, 304, 

305, and 310.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content m on, the procedure was very expensive and seemed 

to be just a futile technical exercise, but we paid for the development and evaluation 

costs, and today valvular surgery constitutes a routine treatment providing a long and 

useful life to heart patients of all ages. Had rationing been in effect when the procedure 

was first proposed, in all likelihood it would have gone unfunded and left at the idea 

stage. By and large, rationing would narrow our horizons, inhibit creative imagination 

and vision, slow the progress of medicine and trap us within the limitations of today's 

knowledge and today's technology--a high price to pay. 

Do we really have only a limited amount of money for medical care, and must we 

start rationing now? Obviously, we cannot allocate the bulk of our gross national prod- 

uct to medical care, and we must continue to improve the efficiency and effectiveness 

of the myriad activities we group under the phrase "health care system." But isn't it odd 

that even though we are resolved to spend $500 billion for the S&L bailout, when it 

comes to dealing with the far lesser costs of medical care, we grow mightily exercised, 

dig in our heels and turn to rationing? 

Could it be that our preoccupation with the bottom-line has reached the point of 

gross insensitivity to values that cannot be quantified or incorporated into a balance 

sheet? What kind of people will we become after we agree to toss sick human beings 

onto the trash heap because they aren't worth paying for? Are we really so impoverished 

financially and intellectually that we see no other way out? Possibly, but we ought to 

slow down some and get ourselves a second opinion.

Questions for Analysis 

1. What are the arguments that Laster acknowledges support the view that medi- 

cal care should be rationed?

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452 Chapter 10 Constructing Arguments

2. Despite these arguments, Laster believes that "by accepting the concept of 

rationing we cross a moral divide from which there may be no return. What 

does Laster mean by saying this and what are the reasons that support this 

conclusion? 

3. Laster goes on to contend that "rationing would narrow our horizons, inhibit 

creative imagination and vision, slow the progress of medicine and trap us 

within the limitations of today's knowledge and today's technology--a high 

price to pay." Why does Laster believe that rationing would lead to these 

undesirable consequences? 

4. Based on your thoughtful analysis of both sides of this issue, what is your 

informed conclusion regarding what ought to be done: to ration or not to 

ration? Desay be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

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Contents ix

Defining Concepts 306 

Relating Concepts with Mind Maps 313

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

page 320.

CHAPTER 8 Relating and Organizing 322 

Chronological and Process Relationships 325 

Chronological Relationships 325 

Process Relationships 328 

Comparative and Analogical Relationships 330 

Abid Katib/Getty Images

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals Comparative Relationships 331 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see Analogical Relationships 333 

on pages 342, 348, 

and 363. Using Analogies to Shape Our World 337 

Causal Relationships 341 

Causal Chains 342 

Contributory Causes 345 

Interactive Causes 346 

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on 

page 340.

CHAPTER 9 Thinking Critically About Moral Issues 368 

What Is Ethics? 371 

Your Moral Compass 375 

I Would Follow My Conscience 377 

I Do Not Know What I Would Do 377 

I Would Do Whatever Would Improve My Own Situation 378 

I Would Do What God or the Scriptures Say Is Right 378 

I Would Do Whatever Made Me Happy 380 

David Silverman/Getty Images

Thinking Critically I Would Follow the Advice of an Authority, Such as 

About Visuals a Parent or Teacher 380 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see on I Would Do What is Best for Everyone Involved 380 

pages 379, 384, 390, 

and 398.

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x Contents

The Thinker's Guide to Moral Decision Making 383 

Make Morality a Priority 384 

Recognize that a Critical-Thinking Approach to Ethics Is Based 

Thinking Critically 

on Reason 386 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media Include the Ethic of Justice in Your Moral Compass 386 

Learn to think critically 

about new media on Include the Ethic of Care in Your Moral Compass 388 

page 400. 

Accept Responsibility for Your Moral Choices 389 

Seek to Promote Happiness for Oneself and Others 392 

Seek to Develop an Informed Intuition 394 

Discover the "Natural Law" of Human Nature 396 

Choose to Be a Moral Person 397

CHAPTER 10 Constructing Arguments 414 

Recognizing Arguments 418 

Cue Words for Arguments 420 

LondonPhotos--Homer Sykes/Alamy

Arguments Are Inferences 425 

Evaluating Arguments 426 

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals Truth: How True Are the Supporting Reasons? 426 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see Validity: Do the Reasons Support the Conclusion? 428 

on pages 417, 430, 

and 442. The Soundness of Arguments 429 

Understanding Deductive Arguments 432 

Application of a General Rule 433 

Modus Ponens 434 

Modus Tollens 434 

Thinking Critically Disjunctive Syllogism 435 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically Constructing Extended Arguments 440 

about new media on 

page 438. Writing an Extended Argument 441

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Contents xi

CHAPTER 11 Reasoning Critically 454 

Inductive Reasoning 456 

Empirical Generalization 457 

Is the Sample Known? 457 

Is the Sample Sufficient? 457 

Courtesy, Do It Now Foundation

Is the Sample Representative? 458 

Thinking Critically Fallacies of False Generalization 460 

About Visuals 

Learn to think critically Hasty Generalization 460 

about what you see on 

pages 480, 483, 491, Sweeping Generalization 461 

499, and 505. 

False Dilemma 462 

Causal Reasoning 463 

The Scientific Method 463 

Controlled Experiments 466 

Causal Fallacies 473 

Questionable Cause 473 

Misidentification of the Cause 473 

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 474 

Slippery Slope 474 

Fallacies of Relevance 476 

Appeal to Authority 476 

Appeal to Tradition 477 

Bandwagon 477 

Appeal to Pity 478 

Appeal to Fear 479 

Appeal to Flattery 479 

Special Pleading 482 

Appeal to Ignorance 482 

Begging the Question 483 

Straw Man 484 

Red Herring 484 

Thinking Critically 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media Appeal to Personal Attack 485 

Learn to think critically Two Wrongs Make a Right 485 

about new media on 

page 486. 

The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 492 

What Is My Initial Point of View? 492 

How Can I Define My Point of View More Clearly? 492 

What Is an Example of My Point of View? 494 

What Is the Origcribe the strongest arguments that support your point of view.

CHAPTER 10 Reviewing and Viewing 

Summary 

· Argument is a form of thinking in which · A valid argument is one in which the reasons 

certain reasons are offered to support a support the conclusion so that the conclusion 

conclusion follows from the reasons offered. 

· Cue words for arguments help us identify · Deductive argument is an argument form in 

"reasons" and "conclusions." which one reasons from premises that are 

· Arguments are inferences that we use to help known or assumed to be true to a conclusion 

us decide, explain, predict, and persuade. that follows necessarily from these premises. 

· We evaluate arguments by investigating · Some common deductive argument forms 

"How true are the supporting reasons?" and include modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunc- 

"Do the reasons support the conclusion?" tive syllogism, and application of a general rule.

Suggested Films 

An Inconvenient Truth (2006) 

Al Gore's documentary addresses the scientific causes of global warming as well 

as the social and political factors that support and/or inhibit its decrease.

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Maria, Full of Grace (2004) 

Are the women hired by traffickers to act as drug mules ethically culpable for 

the lives that drugs destroy? What are the various social and political causes and 

effects? This film follows a young Colombian girl who becomes involved in the 

trade in an attempt to escape the desperate circumstances of her life.

Million Dollar Baby (2004) 

A 31-year-old female amateur boxer convinces a veteran boxing coach to train 

her in spite of his initial prejudices. Through their collaboration, she develops into 

a talented fighter. The coach eventually finds himself grappling with the question 

of euthanasia. This film raises questions about what it means to be fully alive, and 

where the line is between murder and mercy.

453 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additin of My Point of View? 494

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xii Contents

What Are My Assumptions? 494 

What Are the Reasons, Evidence, and Arguments that 

Support My Point of View? 495 

What Are Other Points of View on This Issue? 495 

What Is My Conclusion, Decision, Solution, or Prediction? 496 

What Are the Consequences? 496

CHAPTER 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively 510 

Living a Life Philosophy 512 

Choose Freely 514 

Condemned to Be Free 514 

Free Choice: The Mainspring of Human Action 515 

Creating Yourself Through Free Choices 517 

AP Photo/The Daily Gazette, Peter R. Barber

Because You Are Free . . . 519 

Using Your Freedom to Shape Your Life 522 

Escaping From Freedom 524 

Thinking Critically 

About Visuals Increase Your Freedom by Eliminating Constraints 526 

Learn to think critically 

about what you see 

Deciding on a Career 531 

on pages 520, 538, 

and 543. 

Thinking Errors in Career Decisions 532 

Creating Your Dream Job 533 

Discovering Who You Are 534 

ional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

CHAPTER 

11

John Lund/Jupiter Images

Is Seeing Believing?" 

"Is Believing? 

How do we know what we know? How do we know 

what we don't know? We certainly can't depend 

entirely on our senses to achieve knowledge, for if we 

did we would "know" that the woman in this photo 

is levitating without any means of support. So how 

exactly do our minds go about constructing trustwor- 

thy and accurate knowledge of the world? And how 

do we avoid all of the deceptive traps that are eager 

to ensnare our thinking efforts?

454 

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Reasoning Critically

Inductive Reasoning 

Reasoning from premises assumed 

to be true to a conclusion 

supported (but not logically) 

by the premises

Causal Reasoning 

Concluding that an event 

Empirical Generalization is the result of another 

Drawing conclusions about event 

Fallacies 

a target population based 

on observing a sample Unsound arguments 

population that can appear logical Scientific Method 

Is the sample known? 1. Identify an event 

Is the sample sufficient? for investigation 

Is the sample representative? 2. Gather information 

3. Develop a theory/hypothesis 

What Are Your Interests? 534 

What Are Your Abilities? 536 

Thinking Critically Finding the Right Match 537 

© Jupiter Images

About New Media 

Learn to think critically Choosing the "Good Life" 542 

about new media on 

page 539. Meaning of Your Life 543 

Final Thoughts 545

Appendix 548 

How Effective a Critical Thinker Am I? 548 

How Creative Am I? 551 

How Free Am I? 555 

Glossary 559 

Credits 565 

Index 567

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

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Preface

Critical thinking is the cornerstone of higher education, the hallmark of an educated person, and 

teaching a course in critical thinking is one of the most inspiring and rewarding experiences that a 

teacher can have. Because the thinking process is such an integral part of who we are as people, the 

prospect of expanding students' thinking implies expanding who they are as human beings--the 

perspective from which they view the world, the concepts and values they use to guide their choices, 

and the impact they have on the world as a result of those choices. Teaching students to become 

critical thinkers does not mean simply equipping them with certain intellectual tools; it involves 

their personal transformation and its commensurate impact on the quality of their lives and those 

around them. This is truly education at its most inspiring! 

Thinking Critically, Tenth Edition, is a comprehensive introduction to the cognitive process 

and helps students develop the higher-order thinking abilities needed for academic study and career 

success. Based on a nationally recognized interdisciplinary program in Critical Thinking established 

in 1979 at LaGuardia College (The City University of New York) and involving more than eighteen 

hundred students annually, Thinking Critically integrates various perspectives on the thinking pro- 

cess drawn from a variety of disciplines such as philosophy, cognitive psychology, linguistics, and 

the language arts (English, reading, and oral communication). 

Thinking Critically addresses a crucial need in highe 4. Test/experiment 

5. Evaluate results

Fallacies of False 

Fallacies of Relevance 

Generalization 

Causal Fallacies Appeal to authority 

Hasty generalization 

Appeal to tradition 

Sweeping generalization Questionable cause 

Bandwagon 

False dilemma Misidentification of the cause 

Appeal to pity 

Post hoc ergo propter hoc 

Appeal to fear 

Slippery slope Appeal to flattery 

Special pleading 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

Appeal to ignorance 

Begging the question 

Straw man 

Red herring 

Appeal to personal attack 

Two wrongs make a right

455 

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456 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

R easoning is the type of thinking that uses arguments--reasons in support of 

conclusions--to decide, explain, predict, and persuade. Effective reasoning 

involves using all of the intellectual skills and critical attitudes we have been devel- 

oping in this book, and in this chapter we will further explore various dimensions 

of the reasoning process.

Inductive Reasoning 

Chapter 10 focused primarily on deductive reasoning, an argument form in which 

one reasons from premises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion 

inductive that follows necessarily from the premises. In this chapter we will examine inductive 

reasoning An reasoning, an argument form in which one reasons from premises that are known 

argument form or assumed to be true to a conclusion that is supported by the premises but does not 

in which one follow logically from them. 

reasons from 

premises that 

When you reason inductively, your premises provide evidence that makes it 

are known or more or less probable (but not certain) that the conclusion is true. The following 

assumed to be statements are examples of conclusions reached through inductive reasoning. 

true to a con- 

1. A recent Gallup Poll reported that 74 percent of the American public believes 

clusion that is 

supported by that abortion should remain legalized. 

the premises but 2. On the average, a person with a college degree will earn over $1,000,000 more 

does not neces- in his or her lifetime than a person with just a high school diploma. 

sarily follow 

from them 

3. In a recent survey twice as many doctors interviewed stated that if they were 

stranded on a desert island, they would prefer Bayer Aspirin to Extra Strength 

Tylenol. 

4. The outbreak of food poisoning at the end-of-year school party was probably 

caused by the squid salad. 

fallacies 5. The devastating disease AIDS is caused by a particularly complex virus that 

Unsound argu- may not be curable. 

ments that are 

6. The solar system is probably the result of an enormous explosion--a "big 

often persuasive 

and appearing bang"--that occurred billions of years ago. 

to be logical The first three statements are forms of inductive reasoning known as empirical gen- 

because they 

eralization, a general statement about an entire group made on the basis of observing 

usually appeal 

to our emotions 

some members of the group. The final three statements are examples of causal reason- 

and prejudices, ing, a form of inductive reasoning in which it is claimed that an event (or events) is the 

and because result of the occurrence of another event (or events). We will be exploring the ways each 

they often r education by introducing students to 

critical thinking and fostering sophisticated intellectual and language abilities. Students apply their 

evolving thinking abilities to a variety of subjects drawn from academic disciplines, contemporary 

issues, and their life experiences. Thinking Critically is based on the assumption, supported by 

research, that learning to think more effectively is a synthesizing process, knitting critical thinking 

abilities together with academic content and the fabric of students' experiences. Thinking learned 

in this way becomes a constitutive part of who students are.

Features 

This book has a number of distinctive characteristics that make it an effective tool for both 

instructors and students. Thinking Critically 

· teaches the fundamental thinking, reasoning, and language abilities that students need 

for academic success. By focusing on the major thinking and language abilities needed in 

all disciplines, and by including a wide variety of readings, the text helps students perform 

more successfully in other courses. 

· stimulates and guides students to think clearly about complex, controversial issues. The 

many diverse readings provide in-depth perspectives on significant social issues. More 

important, the text helps students develop the thinking and language abilities necessary to 

understand and discuss intelligently these complex issues.

xiii 

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xiv Preface

· presents foundational thinking, reasoning, and language abilities in a developmentally 

sequenced way. The text begins with basic abilities and then carefully progresses to more 

sophisticated thinking and reasoning skills. Cognitive maps open each chapter to help students 

understand the thinking process as well as the interrelationship of ideas within that chapter. 

· engages students in the active process of thinking. Exercises, discussion topics, readings, 

and writing assignments encourage active participation, stimulating students to criti- 

cally examine their own and others' thinking and to sharpen and improve their abilities. 

Thinking Critically provides structured opportunities for students to develop their think- 

ing processes in a progressive, reflective way. 

· provides context by continually relating critical thinking abilities to students' daily lives. 

Once students learn to apply critical thinking skills to situations in their own experiences, 

they then apply these skills to more abstract, academic contexts. Additionally, by asking stu- 

dents to think critically about themselves and their experiences, the text fosters their personal 

development as mature, responsible, critical thinkers. 

· integrates the development of thinking abilities with the four language skills 

so crucial to success in college and careers: reading, writing, speaking, and listening. The 

abundant writing assignments (short answer, paragraph, and essay), challenging readings, 

and discussion exercises serve to improve students' language skills. 

· provides a design for a visual culture. The four-color design supports visual learning styles, 

prompts students to think critically about the way print media messages are shaped, and 

helps clarify distinctions between the many different features and elements of the book's 

pedagogy--text, readings, and other elements. 

· includes coverage of analyzing visual information. A section in Chapter 1, "Images, 

Decision Making, and Thinking About Visual Information," discusses and models the 

ways in which the media shapes the message, and introduces concepts for critical evalua- 

tion of visual information. Each chapter also includes a feature, "Thinking Critically About 

Visuals," that engages students in comparing and evaluating images drawn from current 

events and popular culture. 

· includes substantive treatment of creative thinking. Chapters 1 and 12 begin and end 

the book by linking critical thinking to creative thinking. Chapter 1 analyzes the creative 

process and develops creative thinking abilities, creating a template for approaching issues 

and problems both critically and creatively throughout the text. Chapter 12, "Thinking 

Critically, Living Creatively," reinforces these connections and encourages students to cre- 

ate a life philosophy through moral choices. 

· includes a chapter on ethics. Chapter 9, "Thinking Critically About Moral Issues," was 

developed at the suggestion of reviewers who noted the deep engagement many students 

have with the moral and ethical choices our complex and interconnected society requires 

them to make. 

· includes a section on "Constructing Extended Arguments" that presents a clear model for 

researching and writing argumentative essays. 

· includes a critical thinking test. "Tom Randall's Halloween Party," or the Test of Critical 

Thinking Abilities, developed by the author, is included in the Instructor's Resource Manual 

and in interactive form on the student website, and provides for a comprehensive evaluation 

of these forms of inductive reasoning functions in our lives and in various fields of study. 

support conclu- In addition to examining various ways of reasoning logically and effectively, we 

sions that we will also explore certain forms of reasoning that are not logical and, as a result, are 

want to believe usually not effective. These ways of pseudo-reasoning (false reasoning) are often 

are accurate 

termed fallacies: arguments that are not sound because of various errors in reasoning.

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Empirical Generalization 457

Fallacious reasoning is typically used to influence others. It seeks to persuade not on 

the basis of sound arguments and critical thinking but rather on the basis of emotional 

and illogical factors.

Empirical Generalization 

One of the most important tools used by both natural and social scientists is 

empirical generalization. Have you ever wondered how the major television and 

radio networks can accurately predict election results hours before the polls close? 

These predictions are made possible by the power of empirical generalization, a empirical 

first major type of inductive reasoning that is defined as reasoning from a limited generaliza- 

sample to a general conclusion based on this sample. tion A form 

Network election predictions, as well as public opinion polls that occur through- of inductive 

reasoning in 

out a political campaign, are based on interviews with a select number of people. which a gen- 

Ideally, pollsters would interview everyone in the target population (in this case, vot- eral statement 

ers), but this, of course, is hardly practical. Instead, they select a relatively small group is made about 

of individuals from the target population, known as a sample, who they have deter- an entire group 

mined will adequately represent the group as a whole. Pollsters believe that they can (the "target 

then generalize the opinions of this smaller group to the target population. And with a population") 

few notable exceptions (such as in the 1948 presidential election, when New York gov- based on 

observing some 

ernor Thomas Dewey went to bed believing he had been elected president and woke 

members of 

up a loser to Harry Truman, and the 2000 election, when Al Gore was briefly declared the group 

the presidential winner over George W. Bush), these results are highly accurate. (the "sample 

There are three key criteria for evaluating inductive arguments: population") 

· Is the sample known? 

· Is the sample sufficient? 

· Is the sample representative?

IS THE SAMPLE KNOWN? 

An inductive argument is only as strong as the sample on which it is based. For 

example, sample populations described in vague and unclear terms--"highly placed 

sources" or "many young people interviewed," for example--provide a treacher- 

ously weak foundation for generalizing to larger populations. In order for an induc- 

tive argument to be persuasive, the sample population should be explicitly known 

and clearly identified. Natural and social scientists take great care in selecting the 

members in the sample groups, and this is an important part of the data that is 

available to outside investigators who may wish to evaluate and verify the results.

IS THE SAMPLE SUFFICIENT? 

The second criterion for evaluating inductive reasoning is to consider the size of 

the sample. It should be sufficiently large to give an accurate sense of the group 

as a whole. In the polling example discussed earlier, we would be concerned if

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458 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

only a few registered voters had been interviewed, and the results of these inter- 

views were then generalized to a much larger population. Overall, the larger the 

sample, the more reliable the inductive conclusions. Natural and social scientists 

have developed precise guidelines for determining the size of the sample needed 

to achieve reliable results. For example, poll results are often accompanied by a 

qualification such as "These results are subject to an error factor of 63 percentage 

points." This means that if the sample reveals that 47 percent of those interviewed 

prefer candidate X, then we can reliably state that 44 to 50 percent of the target 

population prefer candidate X. Because a sample is usually a small portion of the 

target population, we can rarely state that the two match each other exactly--there 

must always be some room for variation. The exceptions to this are situations in 

which the target population is completely homogeneous. For example, tasting one 

cookie from a bag of cookies is usually enough to tell us whether or not the entire 

bag is stale.

IS THE SAMPLE REPRESENTATIVE? 

The third crucial element in effective inductive reasoning is the representativeness 

of the sample. If we are to generalize with confidence from the sample to the tar- 

get population, then we have to be sure the sample is similar to the larger group 

from which it is drawn in all relevant aspects. For instance, in the polling example 

the sample population should reflect the same percentage of men and women, of 

Democrats and Republicans, of young and old, and so on, as the target population. 

It is obvious that many characteristics, such as hair color, favorite food, and shoe 

size, are not relevant to the comparison. The better the sample reflects the target 

population in terms of relevant qualities, the better the accuracy of the generaliza- 

tions. However, when the sample is not representative of the target population--for 

example, if the election pollsters interviewed only females between the ages of thirty 

and thirty-five--then the sample is termed biased, and any generalizations about 

the target population will be highly suspect. 

How do we ensure that the sample is representative of the target population? 

One important device is random selection, a selection strategy in which every 

member of the target population has an equal chance of being included in the 

sample. For example, the various techniques used to select winning lottery tick- 

ets are supposed to be random--each ticket is supposed to have an equal chance 

of winning. In complex cases of inductive reasoning--such as polling--random 

selection is often combined with the confirmation that all of the important catego- 

ries in the population are adequately represented. For example, an election poll- 

ster would want to be certain that all significant geographical areas are included 

and then would randomly select individuals from within those areas to compose of student thinking and language abilities. Using a court case format arising from a fatal 

student drinking incident, the test challenges students to gather and weigh evidence, ask rel- 

evant questions, construct informed beliefs, evaluate expert testimony and summation argu- 

ments, reach a verdict, and then view the entire case from a problem-solving perspective.

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Preface xv

New to the Tenth Edition 

New "Thinking Critically About New Media" Sections. It is important that we stay attuned to 

the evolving ways in which people are communicating and how these advances pose unique 

dilemmas and opportunities for critical thinking. To this end, each chapter includes a "Thinking 

Critically About New Media" section that gives students the opportunity to explore and criti- 

cally analyze some aspect of new media. In addition, new media is highlighted in other areas of 

the book, such as in extended readings and the photo program. 

New "Evaluating Your Thinking Abilities" Assessments. There are three 

self-assessment tests in the appendix that provide an opportunity for students to evaluate their 

critical and creative thinking abilities, as well as how thoughtful and enlightened their choices are. 

In addition to embodying the learning outcomes in these areas, the assessments also provide stu- 

dents with practical suggestions for improving their thinking abilities. 

New Visuals. New "Thinking Critically About Visuals" activities were created to tie into the new 

themes in the chapter and reading topics. In addition, new chapter-opening photos draw students 

into the chapter topics and provoke critical thinking from the first page of the chapter. 

New Chapter-Closing Summaries and Suggested Films. Each chapter concludes with a new 

design that incorporates a bulleted "Chapter Summary" section and a "Suggested Films" section 

that help students review what they have learned and provide the opportunity to explore the 

chapter's topics further through other media, in this case films. 

New Readings. This tenth edition has added a number of timely and provocative new readings 

written by a variety of noteworthy authors, including the following: 

"Revenge of the Right Brain" by Daniel Pink 

"Will the Web Kill Colleges?" by Zephyr Teachout 

"Is Google Making Us Stupid?" by Nicholas Carr 

"The Solution to World Hunger" by Peter Singer 

"Playing God in the Garden" by Michael Pollen 

"Why We Must Ration Health Care" by Peter Singer 

"Suffering," an article on the earthquake in Haiti by George Packard 

"The Hidden Problem with Twitter" by Carin Ford 

"Thinking Literally: The Surprising Ways that Metaphors 

the sample. 

Understanding the principles of empirical generalization is of crucial impor- 

tance to effective thinking because we are continually challenged to construct and 

evaluate this form of inductive argument in our lives.

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Empirical Generalization 459

Thinking Activity 11.1 

EVALUATING INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS 

Review the following examples of inductive arguments. (Additional examples are 

included on your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com. For each 

argument, evaluate the quality of the thinking by answering the following questions: 

1. Is the sample known? 

2. Is the sample sufficient? 

3. Is the sample representative? 

4. Do you believe the conclusions are likely to be accurate? Why or why not?

Link Between Pornography and Antisocial Behavior? 

In a study of a possible relationship between pornography and antisocial behavior, 

questionnaires went out to 7,500 psychiatrists and psychoanalysts whose listing in 

the directory of the American Psychological Association indicated clinical experi- 

ence. Over 3,400 of these professionals responded. The result: 7.4 percent of the 

psychiatrists and psychologists had cases in which they were convinced that por- 

nography was a causal factor in antisocial behavior; an additional 9.4 percent were 

suspicious; 3.2 percent did not commit themselves; and 80 percent said they had no 

cases in which a causal connection was suspected.

To Sleep, Perchance to Die? 

A survey by the Sleep Disorder Clinic of the VA hospital in La Jolla, California (involving 

more than one million people), revealed that people who sleep more than ten hours a 

night have a death rate 80 percent higher than those who sleep only seven or eight hours. 

Men who sleep less than four hours a night have a death rate 180 percent higher, and 

women with less [than four hours] sleep have a rate 40 percent higher. This might be 

taken as indicating that too much or too little sleep causes death.

"Slow Down, Multitaskers" 

Think you can juggle phone calls, email, instant messages, and computer work to 

get more done in a time-starved world? Several research reports provide evidence 

of the limits of multitasking. "Multitasking is going to slow you down, increasing 

the chances of mistakes," according to David E. Meyer, a cognitive scientist at the 

University of Michigan. The human brain, with its hundred billion neurons and 

hundreds of trillions of synaptic connections, is a cognitive powerhouse in many 

ways. "But a core limitation is an inability to concentrate on two things at once," 

according to Rene Marois, a neuroscientist at Vanderbilt University. In a recent 

study, a group of Microsoft workers took, on average, 15 minutes to return to 

serious mental tasks, like writing reports or computer code, after responding to 

incoming email or instant messages. They strayed off to reply to other messages or 

to browse news, sports, or entertainment websites.

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460 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Visit your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com, for additional examples 

of inductive arguments.

Thinking Activity 11.2 

DESIGNING A POLL 

Select an issue that you would like to poll a group of people about--for example, the 

population of your school or your neighborhood. Describe in specific terms how 

you would go about constructing a sample both large and representative enough for 

you to generalize the results to the target population accurately.

Fallacies of False Generalization 

In Chapter 7 we explored the way that we form concepts through the interactive 

process of generalizing (identifying the common qualities that define the bound- 

aries of the concept) and interpreting (identifying examples of the concept). 

This generalizing and interpreting process is similar to the process involved in 

constructing empirical generalizations, in which we seek to reach a general con- 

clusion based on a limited number of examples and then apply this conclusion 

to other examples. Although generalizing and interpreting are useful in forming 

concepts, they also can give rise to fallacious ways of thinking, including the 

following: 

· Hasty generalization 

· Sweeping generalization 

· False dilemma

HASTY GENERALIZATION 

Consider the following examples of reasoning. Do you think that the arguments are 

sound? Why or why not? 

My boyfriends have never shown any real concern for my feelings. My conclusion 

is that men are insensitive, selfish, and emotionally superficial. 

My mother always gets upset over insignificant things. This leads me to believe 

that women are very emotional. 

In both of these cases, a general conclusion has been reached that is based on a very 

small sample. As a result, the reasons Shape Your World" by Drake Bennett 

In addition to the new readings, we have also kept those readings that have earned consis- 

tently high praise from users of the book, including the following: 

"Critical Thinking and Obedience to Authority" by John Sabini 

and Maury Silver 

"The Disparity Between Intellect and Character" by Robert Coles 

"Accounts of the Assassination of Malcolm X"

Supplements for Instructors and Students 

ENGLISH COURSEMATE 

Cengage Learning's English CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, 

study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. Features include an inte- 

grated eBook, interactive teaching and learning tools including quizzes, flashcards, videos, and

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xvi Preface

more, as well as EngagementTracker--a first-of-its-kind tool that monitors student engagement 

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APLIA FOR CRITICAL THINKING 

Aplia is a learning solution that increases student effort and engagement, enabling instructors to 

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Customizable, auto-graded homework assignments with randomized questions; Assessment ana- 

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Flexible gradebook tools compatible with other learning management systems; Convenient 

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more; An industry-leading support team.

ONLINE INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL 

Available for download on the book's companion site, the Instructor's Manual is designed to help 

provide very weak support for the conclusions 

that are being developed. It just does not make good sense to generalize from a few 

individuals to all men or all women. The conclusions are hasty because the samples 

are not large enough and/or not representative enough to provide adequate justifi- 

cation for the generalization.

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Fallacies of False Generalization 461

Of course, many generalizations are more warranted than the two given here 

because the conclusion is based on a sample that is larger and more representative 

of the group as a whole. For example: 

I have done a lot of research in a variety of automotive publications on the relation- 

ship between the size of cars and the gas mileage they get. In general, I think it makes 

sense to conclude that large cars tend to get fewer miles per gallon than smaller cars. 

In this case, the conclusion is generalized from a larger and more representative 

sample than those in the preceding two arguments. As a result, the reason for the 

last argument provides much stronger support for the conclusion.

SWEEPING GENERALIZATION 

Whereas the fallacy of hasty generalization deals with errors in the process of gen- 

eralizing, the fallacy of sweeping generalization focuses on difficulties in the process 

of interpreting. Consider the following examples of reasoning. Do you think that 

the arguments are sound? Why or why not? 

Vigorous exercise contributes to overall good health. Therefore, vigorous exercise 

should be practiced by recent heart attack victims, people who are out of shape, 

and women who are about to give birth. 

People should be allowed to make their own decisions, providing that their 

actions do not harm other people. Therefore, people who are trying to commit 

suicide should be left alone to do what they want. 

In both of these cases, generalizations that are true in most cases have been delib- 

erately applied to instances that are clearly intended to be exceptions to the gener- 

alizations because of special features that the exceptions possess. Of course, the use 

of sweeping generalizations stimulates us to clarify the generalization, rephrasing it 

to exclude instances, like those given here, that have special features. For example, 

the first generalization could be reformulated as "Vigorous exercise contributes to 

overall good health, except for recent heart attack victims, people out of shape, and 

women who are about to give birth." Sweeping generalizations become dangerous 

only when they are accepted without critical analysis and reformulation. 

Review the following examples of sweeping generalizations, and in each case 

(a) explain why it is a sweeping generalizatio instructors tailor Thinking Critically to their own courses. The manual includes both a compre- 

hensive bibliography of critical and creative thinking resources and a bibliography of suggested 

fiction, nonfiction readings, and films relating to the themes of the text.

QUICK COACH GUIDE TO CRITICAL THINKING 

Part of the Quick Coach Guide series, this is a brief paperback intended to help students focus on 

key concepts in critical thinking, with explanations, practice exercises, and cases to help students 

develop their critical thinking skills. (Instructors may contact their local sales representative for 

information about bundling options.)

Acknowledgments 

Many persons from a variety of disciplines have contributed to this book at various stages of its 

development over the past editions, and I thank my colleagues for their thorough scrutiny of the 

manuscript and their incisive and creative comments. In addition, I offer my deepest gratitude to 

the faculty members at LaGuardia who have participated with such dedication and enthusiasm in 

the Critical Thinking program, and to the countless students whose commitment to learning is the 

soul of this text.

*Access card required. Instructors may contact their local representative for packaging infor- 

mation. Students may purchase instant access to Enhanced InSiteTM for John Chaffee's 

Thinking Critically Tenth Edition, at CengageBrain.com, our preferred online store.

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Preface xvii

The following reviewers also provided evaluations that were of great help in preparing the 

tenth edition: 

Sonya Alvarado, Eastern Michigan Lewis Long, Irvine Valley College 

University David McGuirk, Miami Dade College 

Allyn Bradford, Wentworth Institute of Stephen Morrison, South 

Technology Texas College 

William Church, Missouri Western State Robi Nester, Irvine Valley College 

College Sharon Presley, California State 

Luke Cuddy, MiraCosta College University East Bay 

Kenneth Friedman, Regis University, Edward Reier, Yuba Community College 

College of Professional Studies Terese Ricard, Spartanburg Community 

Margaret Garcia, Regis University College 

Marival Gonzales-Hernandez, Del Mar Victor Rios, College of the Desert 

College Loreen Ritter, Salter College 

Perry Hardison, Alamance Community Laurel Severino, Santa Fe College 

College Lynn Stiles, Cerritos College 

Dimitri Keriotis, Modesto Junior College Rita Treutel, University of Alabama at 

John Kimsey, DePaul University-- Birmingham 

Lincoln Park

I have been privileged to work with a stellar team of people at Cengage who are exemplary 

professionals and also valued friends. Lyn Uhl, Publisher, has been steadfast in her personal 

and professional support of Thinking Critically, and I am deeply grateful. My thanks also to 

the Executive Editor, Monica Eckman, for her efforts on behalf of the book. Margaret Leslie, 

Acquisitions Editor, provided wise guidance and crucial decisions in overseeing this revision 

of Thinking Critically: her steady hand at the helm and insightful suggestions at key junctures 

were essential. My heartfelt thanks go to Leslie Taggart who, in her role as Senior Development 

Editor, provided the comprehensive direction and creative vision for this splendid edition that 

will be crucial for its success. It was a special pleasure working with the Development Editor, 

Cheri Dellelo. Cheri was the invaluable core of the revision, instrumental in shaping every ele- 

ment of this new edition with a conscientious attention to detail and unwavering commitment 

to excellence. I am appreciative of the excellent support provided by the Assistant Editor, Amy 

Haines, and also the Editorial Assistant, Elizabeth Ramsey. I am indebted to the Marketing staff 

for their talented and innovative efforts on behalf of Thinking Critically: Marketing Manager 

Jenn Zourdos; Communications Manager Jason Sakos; and Marketing Assistant Ryan Ahern. I 

would like to extend special appreciation to the Production team, for their dedicated and talented 

efforts on behalf of the book: Corinna Dibble, Katie Huha, Jennifer Meyer Dare, Scott Rosen, and 

Janine Tagney. 

Finally, I thank my wife, Heide, and my children, Jessie and Joshua, for their complete and 

ongoing love, support, and inspiration. It is these closest relationships that make life most worth 

living. And I wish to remember my parents, Charlotte Hess and Hubert Chaffee, who taught me 

lasting lessons about the most important things in life. They will always be with me. 

Although this is a published book, it continues to be a work in progress. In this spirit, I invite 

you to share your experiences with the text by sending me your comments. I hope that this book 

serves as an effective vehicle for your own critical thinking explorations in living an examined life. 

You can contact me online at [email protected] and my mailing address is LaGuardia College, 

City University of New York, Humanities Department, 31-10 Thomson Avenue, Long Island 

City, NY 11101. 

John Chaffee

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning

Form a Point of View 

Initial description 

Clear definition 

Look to Examples Look to 

one side the other side

Other Point of View Other Point of View 

Reasons Reasons 

Evidence Evidence 

St Arguments ? St Arguments ? 

ro 

ng? li d Va 

ro ng? li d Va 

Relevant? Relevant? 

Look behind Build Support Look behind 

Origin Reasons Assumptions 

How did I form this Evidence What are my 

point of view? St 

ron Arguments d? unstated beliefs? 

i 

g ? Relevant? Val 

n and (b) reformulate the statement so 

that it becomes a legitimate generalization. 

1. A college education stimulates you to develop as a person and prepares you 

for many professions. Therefore, all persons should attend college, no matter 

what career they are interested in. 

2. Drugs such as heroin and morphine are addictive and therefore qualify as 

dangerous drugs. This means that they should never be used, even as 

painkillers in medical situations. 

3. Once criminals have served time for the crimes they have committed, they have 

paid their debt to society and should be permitted to work at any job they choose.

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462 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

FALSE DILEMMA 

The fallacy of the false dilemma--also known as the "either/or" fallacy or the "black- 

or-white" fallacy--occurs when we are asked to choose between two extreme alter- 

natives without being able to consider additional options. For example, we may say, 

"Either you're for me or against me," meaning that a choice has to be made between 

these alternatives. Sometimes giving people only two choices on an issue makes 

sense ("If you decide to swim the English Channel, you'll either make it or you 

won't"). At other times, however, viewing situations in such extreme terms may be 

a serious oversimplification--for it would mean viewing a complicated situation in 

terms that are too simple. 

The following statements are examples of false dilemmas. After analyzing the 

fallacy in each case, suggest different alternatives than those being presented.

EXAMPLE: "Everyone in Germany is a National Socialist--the few outside the 

party are either lunatics or idiots." (Adolf Hitler, quoted by the New York Times, 

April 5, 1938) 

ANALYSIS: This is an oversimplification. Hitler is saying that if you are not 

a Nazi, then you are a lunatic or an idiot. By limiting the population to these 

groups, Hitler was simply ignoring all the people who did not qualify as Nazis, 

lunatics, or idiots.

1. America--love it or leave it! 

2. She loves me; she loves me not. 

3. Live free or die. 

4. If you're not part of the solution, then you're part of the problem. 

(Eldridge Cleaver) 

5. If you know about BMWs, you either own one or you want to.

Thinking Passage 

DETECTING FALLACIES OF FALSE GENERALIZATION 

In the article entitled "She's Not Really Ill . . . ," columnist (and humorist) Maureen 

Dowd acknowledges at the outset that she's likely guilty of making a sweeping gen- 

eralization with her statement "All women have gone crazy."

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Visit your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com, to read an essay that 

addresses false generalizations--"She's Not Really Ill . . . ," by Maureen Dowd. After reading the 

selection, respond to the questions that follow online.

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Causal Reasoning 463

Causal Reasoning 

A second major type of inductive reasoning is causal reasoning, a form in which causal 

an event (or events) is claimed to be the result of the occurrence of another event reasoning A 

(or events). form of induc- 

As you use your thinking abilities to try to understand the world you live in, you tive reason- 

often ask the question "Why did that happen?" For example, if the engine of your ing in which 

car is running roughly, your natural question is "What's wrong?" If you wake up one an event (or 

morning with an upset stomach, you usually ask yourself, "What's the cause?" Or events) is 

claimed to be 

maybe the softball team you belong to has been losing recently. You typically wonder, the result of 

"What's going on?" In each of these cases you assume that there is some factor (or fac- another event 

tors) responsible for what is occurring, some cause (or causes) that results in the effect (or events) 

(or effects) you are observing (the rough engine, the upset stomach, the losing team). 

As you saw in Chapter 8, causality is one of the basic patterns of thinking we 

use to organize and make sense of our experience. For instance, imagine how 

bewildered you would feel if a mechanic looked at your car and told you there was 

no explanation for the poorly running engine. Or suppose you take your upset 

stomach to the doctor, who examines you and then concludes that there is no pos- 

sible causal explanation for the malady. In each case you would be understandably 

skeptical of the diagnosis and would probably seek another opinion.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 

Causal reasoning is also the backbone of the natural and social sciences; it is respon- 

sible for the remarkable understanding of our world that has been achieved. The sci- 

entific method works on the assumption that the world is constructed in a complex 

web of causal relationships that can be discovered through systematic investigation. 

Scientists have devised an organized approach for discovering causal relationships 

and testing the accuracy of conclusions. The sequence of steps is as follows: 

1. Identify an event or a relationship between events to be investigated. 

2. Gather information about the event (or events). 

3. Develop a hypothesis or theory to explain what is happening. 

4. Test the hypothesis or theory through experimentation. 

5. Evaluate the hypothesis or theory based on experimental results. 

How does this sequence work when applied to the situation of the rough-running 

engine mentioned earlier? 

1. Identify an event or a relationship between events to be investigated. In this 

case, the event is obvious--your car's engine is running poorly, and you want 

to discover the cause of the problem so that you can fix it. 

2. Gather information about the event (or events). This step involves locating 

any relevant information about the situation that will help solve the problem.

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464 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

You initiate this step by asking and trying to answer a variety of questions: 

When did the engine begin running poorly? Was this change abrupt or gradual? 

When did the car last have a tune-up? Are there other mechanical difficulties 

that might be related? Has anything unusual occurred with the car recently? 

3. Develop a hypothesis or theory to explain what is happening. After reviewing 

the relevant information, you will want to identify the most likely explanation 

hypothesis of what has happened. This possible explanation is known as a hypothesis. 

A possible (A theory is normally a more complex model that involves a number of inter- 

explanation that connected hypotheses, such as the theory of quantum mechanics in physics.) 

is introduced to 

account for a set Although your hypothesis may be suggested by the information you have, it goes 

of facts and that beyond the information as well and so must be tested before you commit yourself 

can be used as a to it. In this case the hypothesis you might settle on is "water in the gas." This 

basis for further hypothesis was suggested by your recollection that the engine troubles began right 

investigation after you bought gas in the pouring rain. This hypothesis may be correct or it may 

be incorrect--you have to test it to find out. 

When you devise a plausible hypothesis to be tested, you should keep three 

general guidelines in mind: 

· Explanatory power: The hypothesis should effectively explain the event you are 

investigating. The hypothesis that damaged windshield wipers are causing the 

engine problem doesn't seem to provide an adequate explanation of the difficulties. 

· Economy: The hypothesis should not be unnecessarily complex. The expla- 

nation that your engine difficulty is the result of sabotage by an unfriendly 

neighbor is possible but unlikely. There are simpler and more direct explana- 

tions you should test first. 

· Predictive power: The hypothesis should allow you to make various predic- 

tions to test its accuracy. If the "water in the gas" hypothesis is accurate, you 

can predict that removing the water from the gas tank and gas line should 

clear up the difficulty. 

4. Test the hypothesis or theory through experimentation. Once you identify 

a hypothesis that meets these three guidelines, the next task is to devise an 

experiment to test its accuracy. In the case of your troubled car, you would 

test your hypothesis by pouring several containers of "dry gas" into the tank, 

blowing out the gas line, and cleaning the fuel injection valve. By removing 

the moisture in the gas system, you should be able to determine whether your 

hypothesis is correct. 

5. Evaluate the hypothesis or theory based on experimental results. After review- 

ing the results of your experiment, you usually can assess the accuracy of your 

hypothesis. If the engine runs smoothly after you remove moisture from the gas 

line, then this strong evidence supports your hypothesis. If the engine does not 

run smoothly after your efforts, then this persuasive evidence suggests that your 

hypothesis is not correct. There is, however, a third possibility. Removing the 

moisture from the gas system might improve the engine's performanc Inference

Conclusion 

Decision 

Solution 

Prediction

Consequences 

© Cengage Learning

What will happen if 

the conclusion 

is adopted? A modified version of a schema originally 

designed by Ralph H. Johnson.

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CHAPTER 

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e somewhat

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Causal Reasoning 465

but not entirely. In that case you might want to construct a revised hypothesis 

along the lines of "Water in the gas system is partially responsible for my rough- 

running engine, but another cause (or causes) might be involved as well." 

If the evidence does not support your hypothesis or supports a revised version of 

it, you then begin the entire process again by identifying and testing a new hypothesis. 

The natural and social sciences engage in an ongoing process of developing theories 

and hypotheses and testing them through experimental design. Many theories and 

hypotheses are much more complex than our "moisture in the gas" example and take 

years of generating, revising, and testing. Determining the subatomic structure of 

the universe and finding cures for various kinds of cancers, for example, have been 

the subjects of countless theories and hypotheses, as well as experiments to test their 

accuracy. We might diagram this operation of the scientific process as follows:

Acceptance, rejection, or revison of a theory/hypothesis

P re d i c t i o ns 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

Theory/hypothesis 

ry/hypothesis 

or Experimen 

n testing 

Experimental

I n f o r ma t i o n

Thinking Activity 11.3 

APPLYING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 

Select one of the following situations or describe a situation of your own choosing. 

Then analyze the situation by working through the various steps of the scientific 

method listed directly after. 

· Situation 1: You wake up in the morning with an upset stomach. 

· Situation 2: Your grades have been declining all semester. 

· Situation 3: (Your own choosing)

1. Identify an event or a relationship between events to be investigated. 

Describe the situation you have selected. 

2. Gather information about the event (or events). Elaborate the situation by 

providing additional details. Be sure to include a variety of possible causes for 

the event. (For example, an upset stomach might be the result of food 

poisoning, the flu, anxiety, etc.)

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466 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

3. Develop a hypothesis or theory to explain what is happening. Based on the 

information you have described, identify a plausible hypothesis or theory that 

(a) explains what occurred, (b) is clear and direct, and (c) leads to predictions 

that can be tested. 

4. Test the hypothesis or theory through experimentation. Design a way of test- 

ing your hypothesis that results in evidence proving or disproving it. 

5. Evaluate the hypothesis or theory based on experimental results. Describe the 

results of your experiment and explain whether the results lead you to accept, 

reject, or revise your hypothesis. 

In designing the experiment in Thinking Activity 11.3, you may have used one 

of two common reasoning patterns. 

REASONING PATTERN 1: A caused B because A is the only relevant common 

element shared by more than one occurrence of B. 

For example, imagine that you are investigating your upset stomach, and you 

decide to call two friends who had dinner with you the previous evening to see if 

they have similar symptoms. You discover they also have upset stomachs. Because 

dining at "Sam's Seafood" was the only experience shared by the three of you that 

might explain the three stomach problems, you conclude that food poisoning may 

in fact be the cause. Further, although each of you ordered a different entrée, you 

all shared an appetizer, "Sam's Special Squid," which suggests that you may have 

identified the cause. As you can see, this pattern of reasoning looks for the common 

thread linking different occurrences of the same event to identify the cause; stated 

more simply, "The cause is the common thread." 

REASONING PATTERN 2: A caused B because A is the only relevant differ- 

ence between this situation and other situations in which B did not take place. 

For example, imagine that you are investigating the reasons that your team, which has 

been winning all year, has suddenly begun to lose. One way of approaching this situa- 

tion is to look for circumstances that might have changed at the time your team's for- 

tunes began to decline. Your investigation yields two possible explanations. First, your 

team started wearing Thinking

Thinking

Thinking 

Creatively

Thinking 

Critically

Thinking can be developed and improved by 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

· becoming aware of the thinking process.

· carefully examining the thinking process.

· practicing the thinking process.

3 

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4 Chapter 1 Thinking

T hinking is the extraordinary process we use every waking moment to make 

sense of our world and our lives. Successful thinking enables us to solve the 

problems we are continually confronted with, to make intelligent decisions, and to 

achieve the goals that give our lives purpose and fulfillment. It is an activity that is 

crucial for living in a meaningful way. 

This book is designed to help you understand the complex, incredible process 

of thinking. You might think of this text as a map to guide you in exploring the 

way your mind operates. This book is also founded on the conviction that you can 

improve your thinking abilities by carefully examining your thinking process and 

working systematically through challenging activities. Thinking is an active process, 

and you learn to do it better by becoming aware of and actually using the thought 

process, not simply by reading about it. By participating in the thinking activities 

contained in the text and applying these ideas to your own experiences, you will find 

that your thinking--and language--abilities become sharper and more powerful. 

College provides you with a unique opportunity to develop your mind in the 

fullest sense. Entering college initiates you into a community of people dedicated 

to learning, and each discipline, or subject area, represents an organized effort to 

thinking understand some significant dimension of human experience. As you are intro- 

critically duced to various disciplines, you learn new ways to understand the world, and you 

Carefully elevate your consciousness as a result. This book, in conjunction with the other 

exploring the courses in your college experience, will help you become an "educated thinker," 

thinking process expanding your mind and developing your sensibilities. 

to clarify our 

Achieving the goal of becoming an educated thinker involves two core processes 

understand- 

ing and make that are the mainsprings of our thoughts and actions: thinking critically and thinking 

more intelligent creatively. The process of thinking critically involves thinking for ourselves by care- 

decisions fully examining the way that we make sense of the world. Taking this approach to 

living is one of the most satisfying aspects of being a mature human being. 

We are able to think critically because of our natural human ability to reflect--to 

thinking 

creatively 

think back on what we are thinking, doing, or feeling. By carefully thinking back on our 

Using our thinking, we are able to figure out the way that our thinking operates and thus learn to do 

thinking process it more effectively. In this book we will be systematically exploring the many dimensions 

to develop ideas of the way our minds work, providing the opportunity to deepen our understanding of 

that are unique, the thinking process and stimulating us to become more effective thinkers. 

useful, and wor- Of course, carefully examining the ideas produced by the thinking process 

thy of further assumes that there are ideas that are worth examining. We produce such ideas by 

elaboration 

thinking creatively, an activity we can define as follows:

Living an "Examined" Life 

Over 2,500 years ago the Greek philosopher Socrates cautioned, "The 

unexamined life is not worth living," underscoring the insight that when we 

don't make use of our distinctive human capacity to think deeply and act

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Living an "Examined" Life 5

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

The Mystery of the Mind 

Why is thinking a difficult process to understand? Why does improving our 

thinking involve sharing ideas with other people? Why does each person think in 

unique ways?

Using functional magne new uniforms about the time it started losing. Second, one of your 

regular players was sidelined with a foot injury. You decide to test the first hypothesis 

by having the team begin wearing the old uniforms again. When this doesn't change 

your fortunes, you conclude that the missing player may be the cause of the difficulties, 

and you anxiously await the player's return to see if your reasoning is accurate. As you 

can see, this pattern of reasoning looks for relevant differences linked to the situation 

you are trying to explain; stated more simply, "The cause is the difference."

CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS 

Although our analysis of causal reasoning has focused on causal relationships between 

specific events, much of scientific research concerns causal factors influencing popula- 

tions composed of many individuals. In these cases the causal relationships tend to be

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Causal Reasoning 467

much more complex than the simple formulation A causes B. For example, on every 

package of cigarettes sold in the United States appears a message such as "Surgeon 

General's Warning: Smoking Causes Lung Cancer, Heart Disease, Emphysema, and 

May Complicate Pregnancy." This does not mean that every cigarette smoked has a 

direct impact on one's health, nor does it mean that everyone who smokes moder- 

ately, or even heavily, will die prematurely of cancer, heart disease, or emphysema. 

Instead, the statement means that if you habitually smoke, your chances of developing 

one of the diseases normally associated with smoking are significantly higher than are 

those of someone who does not smoke or who smokes only occasionally. How were 

scientists able to arrive at this conclusion? 

The reasoning strategy scientists use to reach conclusions like this one is the 

controlled experiment, and it is one of the most powerful reasoning strategies ever 

developed. There are three different kinds of controlled experiment designs: 

1. Cause-to-effect experiments (with intervention) 

2. Cause-to-effect experiments (without intervention) 

3. Effect-to-cause experiments

Cause-to-Effect Experiments (with Intervention) The first of these forms of 

reasoning, known as cause-to-effect experiments (with intervention), is illus- 

trated by the following example. Imagine that you have developed a new cream 

you believe will help cure baldness in men and women and you want to evaluate 

its effectiveness. What do you do? To begin with, you have to identify a group 

of people who accurately represent all of the balding men and women in the 

United States because testing ttic 

resonance imaging (or 

fMRI), researchers can 

observe changes in blood 

flow in the brain. In this 

way, they can see which 

parts of the brain are 

most active when a person 

is engaged in different 

mental processes. In the 

fMRI images (right), the 

red areas indicate the most 

blood flow or activity. 

What can we learn about 

the thinking process by 

examining the brain states 

Dan McCoy/Rainbow/Science Faction

that are correlated with 

different experiences as 

depicted by these different 

fMRI images?

intelligently, our lives have diminished meaning. In a warning that is at least 

as relevant today as it was when he first spoke it, Socrates cautioned his fellow 

citizens of Athens: 

"You, my friend--a citizen of the great and mighty and wise city of Athens--are 

you not ashamed of heaping up the greatest amount of money and honour and 

reputation, and caring so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improve- 

ment of the soul, which you never regard or heed at all?"

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6 Chapter 1 Thinking

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

You Are the Artist of Your Life 

In what ways does this metaphor help you understand your personal development? In 

what ways does it highlight the role of personal responsibility in your life? 

Adam Crowley/PhotoDisc/Getty Images

Today's world is a complex and challenging place in which to live. The acceler- 

ated pace at which many people live often makes them feel as though they are rush- 

ing from deadline to deadline, skating on the surface of life instead of exploring its 

deeper meanings. What is the purpose of your life? Who are you, and who do you 

want to become? These are essential questions that form the core of life, and yet the 

velocity of our lives discourages us from even posing these questions, much less 

trying to answer them.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reshe cream on all balding people simply isn't fea- 

sible. This involves following the guidelines for inductive reasoning described 

in the last section. It is important that the group you select to test be represen- 

tative of all balding people (known as the target population) because you hope 

your product will grow hair on all types of heads. For example, if you select only 

men between the ages of twenty and thirty to test, the experiment will establish 

only whether the product works for men of these ages. Additional experiments 

will have to be conducted for women and other age groups. This representative 

group is known as a sample. Scientists have developed strategies for selecting 

sample groups to ensure that they fairly mirror the larger group from which 

they are drawn. 

Once you have selected your sample of balding men and women--say, you 

have identified 200 people--the next step is to divide the sample into two groups 

of 100 people that are alike in all relevant respects. The best way to ensure that the 

groups are essentially alike is through the technique we examined earlier called 

random selection, which means that each individual selected has the same chance 

of being chosen as everyone else. You then designate one group as the experimental 

group and the other group as the control group. You next give the individuals in 

the experimental group treatments of your hair-growing cream, and you give either 

no treatments or a harmless, non-hair-growing cream to the control group. At the

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468 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

conclusion of the testing period, you compare the experimental group with the 

control group to evaluate hair gain and hair loss. 

Suppose that a number of individuals in the experimental group do indeed 

show evidence of more new hair growth than the control group. How can you be 

sure this is because of the cream and not simply a chance occurrence? Scientists 

have developed a formula for statistical significance based on the size of the 

sample and the frequency of the observed effects. For example, imagine that 

thirteen persons in your experimental group show evidence of new hair growth, 

whereas no one in the control group shows any such evidence. Statisticians have 

determined that we can say with 95 percent certainty that the new hair growth 

was caused by your new cream--that the results were not merely the result of 

chance. This type of experimental result is usually expressed by saying that the 

experimental results were significant at the 0.05 level, a standard criterion in 

experimental research. The diagram below shows the cause-to-effect experiment 

(with intervention).

e-to-Effect Experiments (with Intervention) 

Cause-to-Effect Inte

Population

m sele 

random ection 

i 

selection

Control Experimental al 

experimental 

Suspected 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

group group n 

intervention Cause

?? 

RESULTS RESULTS

Cause-to-Effect Experiments (Without Intervention) A second form of controlled 

experiment is known as the cause-to-effect experiment (without intervention). This 

form of experimental design is similar to the one just described except that the 

experimenter does not intervene to expose the experimental group to a proposed 

cause (like the hair-growing cream). Instead, the experimenter identifies a cause that 

a population is already exposed to and then constructs the experiment. For example, 

suppose you suspect that the asbestos panels and insulation in some old buildings 

cause cancer. Because it would not be ethical to expose people intentionally to 

something that might damage their health, you would search for already existing 

conditions in which people are being exposed to the asbestos. Once located, these 

individuals (or a representative sample) could be used as the experimental group. 

You could then form a control group of individuals who are not exposed to asbestos 

but who match the experimental group in all other relevant respects. You could then 

investigate the health experiences of both groups over time, thereby evaluating the

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Causal Reasoning 469

possible relationship between asbestos and cancer. The following diagram illustrates 

the procedure used in cause-to-effect experiments (without intervention).

Experime 

ents 

e nts (without Intervention) 

Cause-to-Effect Experiments

Control Group 

Experimental Group 

Matched to experimental 

Current exposure to 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

group for suspected cause 

suspected cause

?? 

RESULTS RESULTS

Effect-to-Cause Experiments A third form of reasoning employing the controlled 

experimental design is known as the effect-to-cause experiment. In this case the 

experimenter works backward from an existing effect to a suspected cause. For 

example, imagine that you are investigating the claim by many Vietnam veterans 

that exposure to the chemical defoliant Agent Orange has resulted in significant 

health problems for them and for children born to them. Once again, you would 

not want to expose people to a potentially harmful substance just to test a hypoth- 

esis. And unlike the asbestos case we just examined, people are no longer being 

exposed to Agent Orange as they were during the Vietnam War. As a result, inves- 

tigating the claim involves beginning with the effect (health problems) and work- 

ing back to the suspected cause (Agent Orange). In this case the target population 

would be Vietnam veterans who were exposed to Agent Orange, so you would draw 

a representative sample from this erves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Living an "Examined" Life 7

We all have our own unique challenges to meet in order to find our life path, just 

as the painter Chuck Close (pictured below) has overcome physical disability to 

achieve great success. What choices will you have to make in order to reach your 

full potential as a person? 

AP Photo/Mark Lennihan

Your efforts to become thoughtful and reflective, to explore the nature of your 

self and the meaning of your life, are made even more difficult by the unthinking 

world in which we live. Consider all of the foolish opinions, thoughtless decisions, 

confused communication, destructive behavior, and self-absorbed, thoughtless 

people whom you have to deal with each day. Reflect on the number of times you 

have scratched your head and wondered, "What was that person thinking?" And 

how many times have you asked yourself, "What was I thinking?" The disturbing

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8 Chapter 1 Thinking

truth is that many people don't think very well; they are not making use of their 

potential to think clearly and effectively. 

Every day you encounter a series of choices, forks in your life path that have the 

cumulative effect of defining you as a person. In thinking about these choices, you 

may discover that there are habitual patterns in your life that rarely change. If you 

find that your life is composed of a collection of similar activities and routines, don't 

despair; this is typical, not unusual. However, it may be an indication that you are 

not living your life in the most thoughtful fashion possible, that your choices have 

become automatic, and that your experiences are fixed in certain "ruts." If this is the 

case, it may be time to reflect on your life, reevaluate the choices you are making, 

and consider living your life in a more reflective and creative fashion. 

You are an artist, creating your life portrait, and your paints and brush strokes 

are the choices you make each day of your life. This metaphor provides you with a 

way to think about your personal development and underscores your responsibility 

for making the most intelligent decisions possible. 

group. You would form a matching control group 

from the population of Vietnam veterans who were not exposed to Agent Orange. 

Next, you would compare the incidence of illnesses claimed to have been caused 

by Agent Orange and evaluate the proposed causal relation. The following diagram 

illustrates the procedure used in effect-to-cause experiments.

se Experiments 

Effect-to-Cause

Control Group Experimental Group 

Incident of effect Incident of effect 

measured measured 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

No previous exposure Previous exposure 

to suspected cause to suspected cause

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470 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

Thinking Activity 11.4 

EVALUATING EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 

Read the following experimental situations. (Additional situations are included on 

your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com. For each situation 

1. Describe the proposed causal relationship (the theory or hypothesis). 

2. Identify which kind of experimental design was used. 

3. Evaluate 

a. The representativeness of the sample 

b. The randomness of the division into experimental and control groups 

4. Explain how well the experimental results support the proposed theory or 

hypothesis.

Mortality Shown to Center Around Birthdays 

A study, based on 2,745,149 deaths from natural causes, has found that men tend 

to die just before their birthdays, while women tend to die just after their birthdays. 

Thus an approaching birthday seems to prolong the life of women and precipitate 

death in men. The study, published in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine, found 

3 percent more deaths than expected among women in the week after a birthday 

and a slight decline the week before. For men, deaths peaked just before birthdays 

and showed no rise above normal afterward.

A S You have the capacity to create a richly fulfilling life, but you must develop and 

make full use of your thinking potential to do so. By becoming a true educated 

thinker, you will have the tools to unlock the mysteries of yourself and meet the 

challenges of the world.

A Roadmap to Your Mind 

This book is designed to help you become an educated thinker by providing you 

with many opportunities to use your mind in ways that will strengthen and elevate 

your thinking abilities. Many of these abilities--such as working toward your goals, 

solving problems, or making intelligent decisions--will already be familiar to 

you. Others, such as understanding the conceptualizing process or constructing rig- 

orous extended arguments, will be less so. But whatever your degree of familiarity, 

and no matter what your level of expertise, you can always improve your thinking 

abilities, and doing so will enrich your life in countless ways. Here is a brief preview 

of the thinking abilities you will be studying--the very same abilities that you will 

be using to think with as you study them! (The numbers following the abilities refer 

to the chapter[s] that deal with them.) 

· Establishing and achieving your goals (1) 

· Becoming an intelligent and effective decision maker (1) 

· Becoming a confident and productive creative thinker (1) 

· Becoming an independent, informed, and open-minded critical thinker (2) 

· Learning to analyze and discuss complex, controversial ideas in an organized 

fashion (2) 

· Becoming a powerful and successful problem solver (3)

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Working Toward Goals 9

· Becoming familiar with the perceptual "lenses" through which you view the 

world, and understanding the way these lenses shape and influence your entire 

experience (4) 

· Learning to develop informed, well-supported beliefs and achieve authentic 

knowledge of important issues (5) 

· Learning to critically analyze information and images presented in the media, 

the Internet, and popular culture (5) 

· Developing your ability to understand and use language in an effective way in 

order to express your ideas clearly and coherently (6) 

· Learning to form and apply concepts in order to understand the wohorter Life for Lefties 

A survey of 5,000 people by Stanley Coren found that while 15 percent of the popu- 

lation at age ten was left-handed, there was a pronounced drop-off as people grew 

older, leaving 5 percent among fifty-year-olds and less than 1 percent for those age 

eighty and above. Where have all the lefties gone? They seem to have died. Lefties 

have a shorter life expectancy than righties, by an average of nine years in the 

general population, apparently due to the ills and accidents they are more likely to 

suffer by having to live in a "right-handed world."

Nuns Offer Clues to Alzheimer's and Aging 

The famous "Nun Study" is considered by experts on aging to be one of the most 

innovative efforts to answer questions about who gets Alzheimer's disease and why. 

Studying 678 nuns at seven convents has shown that folic acid may help stave off 

Alzheimer's disease, and that early language ability may be linked to lower risk of 

Alzheimer's because nuns who packed more ideas into the sentences of their early 

autobiographies were less likely to get Alzheimer's disease six decades later. Also, 

nuns who expressed more positive emotions in their autobiographies lived signifi- 

cantly longer--in some cases 10 years longer--than those expressing fewer positive 

emotions.

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Causal Reasoning 471

Thinking Activity 11.5 

DESIGNING A SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT 

Construct an experimental design to investigate a potential causal relationship of 

your own choosing. Be sure that your experimental design follows the guidelines 

established. 

· A clearly defined theory or hypothesis expressing a proposed relationship 

between a cause and an effect in a population of individuals 

· Representative samples 

· Selection into experimental and control groups 

· A clear standard for evaluating the evidence for or against the theory 

or hypothesis

Thinking Passage 

RESEARCHING CURES AND PREVENTION 

Human history is filled with examples of misguided causal thinking--bleeding peo- 

ple's veins and applying leeches to reduce fever, beating and torturing emotionally 

disturbed people to drive out the devils thought to possess them, sacrificing young 

women to ensure the goodwill of the gods, and so on. When the bubonic plague 

ravaged Europe in the fourteenth century, the lack of scientific understanding ledrld in a 

clear, sophisticated way (7) 

· Developing your ability to relate and organize concepts in complex thinking 

patterns (8) 

· Learning to think critically about ethical issues and moral beliefs (9) 

· Learning to construct logically valid and compelling arguments to support 

your point of view (10) 

· Learning to evaluate the soundness of deductive and inductive arguments and 

detect illogical ways of thinking ("fallacies") (10, 11) 

· Developing your ability to make enlightened choices and work toward 

creating a meaningful and fulfilling life (12) 

Of course, these abilities do not operate in isolation from one another; instead, 

they work together in complex patterns and relationships. So, for example, in the 

remainder of this first chapter, we're going to explore three core areas that are cen- 

tral to being an accomplished thinker and living a successful, fulfilling life: 

· Establishing and achieving your goals 

· Becoming an intelligent and effective decision maker 

· Becoming a confident and productive creative thinker 

Achieving your full potential in these areas involves all of the other thinking 

abilities that you will be studying in this book. In this chapter you will be laying 

the foundation for achieving your goals, making effective decisions, and learning to 

think creatively. However, your abilities in these areas will continue to grow as you 

develop and practice the full range of your thinking capabilities included in this text.

Working Toward Goals 

"Ah, but a man's reach should exceed his grasp, / Or what's a heaven for?" 

--Robert Browning

My future career goal is to become a professional photographer, working for 

National Geographic Magazine and traveling around the world. I originally had

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10 Chapter 1 Thinking

different dreams, but gradually drifted away from them and lost interest. Then I 

enrolled in a photography course and loved it. I couldn't wait until the weekend 

was over to attend class on Monday or to begin my next class project--reactions 

that were really quite unusual for me! Not everyone is certain at my age about 

what they would like to become, and I think it is important to discover a career 

you will enjoy because you are going to spend the rest of your life doing it. I have 

many doubts, as I think everyone does. Am I good enough? The main thing I fear 

is rejection, people not liking my work, a possibility that is unavoidable in life. 

There is so much competition in this world that sometimes when you see some- 

one better at what you do, you can feel inadequate. These problems and obstacles 

that interfere with my goals will have to be overcome. Rejection will have to be 

accepted and looked at as a learning experience, and competition will have to be 

used as an incentive for me to work at my highest level. But through it all, if you 

don't have any fears, then what do you have? Lacking competition and the pos- 

sibility of rejection, there is no challenge to life. 

As revealed in this student passage, goals play extremely important functions 

in your life by organizing your thinking and giving your life order and direction. 

Whether you are preparing food, preparing for an exam, or preparing for a career, 

goals suggest courses of action, and influence your decisions. By performing these 

functions, goals contribute meaning to your life. They give you something to aim for 

and lead to a sense of accomplishment when you reach them, like the satisfaction 

you may have received when you graduated from high school or entered college. 

Your thinking abilities enable you first to identify what your goals are and then to 

plan how to reach these goals. 

Most of your behavior has a purpose or purposes, a goal or goals, that you 

are trying to reach. You can begin to discover the goals of your actions by asking 

the question, "Why?" about what you are doing or thinking. For example, answer 

the following question as specifically as you can: 

Why did you enroll in college? 

This question may have stimulated any number of responses: 

· Because I want to pursue a fulfilling career. 

· Because all of my friends enrolled in college. 

· Because my parents insisted that I go to college in order to get a good job.

Whatever your response, it reveals at least one of your goals in attending college. 

Using your response to the question "Why did you enroll in college?" as a 

starting point, try to discover part of your goal patterns by asking a series of "why" 

questions. After each response, ask "Why?" again. (For example: Why did you enroll 

in college? "Because I want to pursue a fulfilling career." Why do you want to pursue 

a fulfilling career? "Because. . . .") Try to give thoughtful and specific answers. 

As you may have found in completing the activity, this "child's game" of 

repeatedly asking "Why?" begins to reveal the network of goals that struc- 

ture your experience and leads you to progressively more profound questions

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning.  

to causal explanations like "God's punishment of the unholy" and "the astrological 

position of the planets." 

Contrast this fourteenth-century plague with what some people have termed 

the plague of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries--acquired immune defi- 

ciency syndrome (AIDS). We now have the knowledge, reasoning, and technical 

capabilities to investigate the disease in an effective fashion, though no cure or pre- 

ventative inoculation has yet been developed.

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Visit your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com, to read an excerpt from 

a World Health Organization report that describes the political, social, and medical responses to 

the ongoing AIDS epidemic.

Questions for Analysis 

1. Name and explain the different processes that the World Health Organization's 

"3 by 5" initiative is taking to address the AIDS epidemic in developing 

countries. 

2. Construct an experimental design that would test the distribution of antiret- 

roviral therapy in developing countries described in paragraphs 5 and 6. Be 

sure that your experimental design follows the guidelines detailed in Thinking 

Activity 11.5.

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472 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

3. Go to the United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS website at http://www 

.unaids.org/en/default.asp. Look up information about how UNAIDS is 

addressing the epidemic in a specific country. What are the unique obstacles 

to fighting HIV/AIDS in that country? What steps is UNAIDS taking to help 

overcome those obstacles? Think about HIV/AIDS prevention efforts in your 

own community. What kinds of obstacles do educators and health care work- 

ers face in combating AIDS in your community? (For example, students might 

be too embarrassed or reluctant to discuss safe sex with a health care worker.) 

What would you propose as an effective, unique way to teach you and your 

peers about HIV/AIDS safety and prevention?

Thinking Passage 

TREATING BREAST CANCER 

Scientific discovery is rarely a straightforward, uninterrupted line of progress. 

Rather, it typically involves confusing and often contradictory results, false starts 

and missteps, and results that are complex and ambiguous. It is only in retrospect 

that we are able to fit all of the pieces of the scientific puzzle into their proper places. 

The race to discover increasingly effective treatments for breast cancer is a 

All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

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Working Toward Goals 11

regarding your basic goals in life, such as "Why do I want to be successful?" or 

"Why do I want a happy and fulfilling life?" These are complex issues that require 

thorough and ongoing exploration. A first step in this direction is to examine the 

way your mind works to achieve your goals, which is the "goal" of this section. 

If you can understand the way your mind functions when you think effectively, 

then you can use this knowledge to improve your thinking abilities. This in turn 

will enable you to deal more effectively with new situations you encounter. To 

begin this process, think about an important goal you have achieved in your 

life, and then complete Thinking Activity 1.1. Thinking Activities are designed 

to stimulate your thinking process and provide the opportunity to express your 

ideas about important topics. By sharing these ideas with your teacher and 

other members of the class, you are not only expanding your own thinking, but 

also expanding theirs. Each student in the class has a wealth of experiences and 

insights to offer to the class community.

Thinking Activity 1.1 

ANALYZING A GOAL THAT YOU ACHIEVED 

1. Describe an important goal that you recently achieved. 

2. Identify the steps you had to take to achieve this goal in the order in which 

they were taken, and estimate the amount of time each step took. 

3. Describe how you felt when you achieved your goal.

ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM GOALS 

By examining your responses to Thinking Activity 1.1, you can see that thinking 

effectively plays a crucial role in helping you to achieve your goals by enabling you 

to perform two distinct, interrelated activities: 

1. Identifying the appropriate goals 

2. Devising effective plans and strategies to achieve your goals 

You are involved in this goal-seeking process in every aspect of your daily life. Some 

of the goals you seek to achieve are more immediate (short-term) than others, such as 

planning your activities for the day or organizing your activities for an upcoming test. 

Although achieving these short-term goals seems like it ought to be a manage- 

able process, the truth is your efforts probably meet with varying degrees of success. 

You may not always achieve your goals for the day, and you might occasionally find 

yourself inadequately prepared for a test. By improving your mastery of the goal- 

seeking process, you should be able to improve the quality of every area of your life. 

Let's explore how to do this. 

Identify five short-term goals you would like to achieve in the next week. Now 

rank these goals in order of importance, ranging from the goals that are most essen- 

tial for you to achieve to those that are less significant.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied compelling example of the twisted path of scientific exploration. One American 

woman in eight develops breast cancer, and it is the health threat women fear 

most, although heart disease is by far the leading cause of death (ten times more 

lethal than breast cancer). But women have been receiving conflicting advice on the 

prevention and cure of breast cancer, based on scientific studies that have yielded 

seemingly confusing results: For example, one study concluded that support groups 

for women with advanced breast cancer extended their lives an average of eighteen 

months, whereas another found that such groups had no impact on life expectancy. 

But it is a recent study on the efficacy of mammograms that is causing the widest 

and most disturbing confusion. This study, reported in a British medical journal, 

asserts that the promise of regular mammograms is an illusion: Mammograms 

have no measurable impact on reducing the risk of death or avoiding mastecto- 

mies! And in November of 2009, the U.S. Preventative Services Task Force--with 

members appointed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services--said 

women do not need routine screenings until they're 50. The independent panel 

also discouraged self-breast examinations, saying they don't significantly reduce 

breast cancer deaths. The new study has sparked a great deal of controversy and 

confusion among patients and physicians. The article entitled "Understanding the 

New Mammogram Guidelines" provides an analysis of this bewildering situation 

and provides a window into the complex process of scientific discovery.

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Visit your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com, to read "Understanding 

the New Mammogram Guidelines."

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Causal Fallacies 473

Causal Fallacies 

Because causality plays such a dominant role in the way we make sense of the 

world, it is not surprising that people make many mistakes and errors in judgment 

in trying to determine causal relationships. The following are some of the most 

common fallacies associated with causality: 

· Questionable cause 

· Misidentification of the cause 

· Post hoc ergo propter hoc 

· Slippery slope

QUESTIONABLE CAUSE 

The fallacy of questionable cause occurs when someone presents a causal relation- 

ship for which no real evidence exists. Superstitious beliefs, such as "If you break a 

mirror, you will have seven years of bad luck," usually fall into this category. Some 

people feel that astrology, a system of beliefs tying one's personality and fortunes in 

life to the position of the planets at the moment of birth, also falls into this category. 

Consider the following passage from St. Augustine's Confessions. Does it seem 

to support or deny the causal assertions of astrology? Why or why not? 

Firminus had heard from his father that when his mother had been pregnant 

with him, a slave belonging to a friend of his father's was also about to bear. It 

happened that since the two women had their babies at the same instant, the men 

were forced to cast exactly the same horoscope for each newborn child down to 

the last detail, one for his son, the other for the little slave. Yet Firminus, born 

to wealth in his parents' house, had one of the more illustrious careers in life 

whereas the slave had no alleviation of his life's burden. 

Other examples of this fallacy include explanations like those given by 

fourteenth-century sufferers of the bubonic plague who claimed that "the Jews are 

poisoning the Christians' wells." This was particularly nonsensical since an equal 

percentage of Jews were dying of the plague as well. The evidence did not support 

the explanation.

MISIDENTIFICATION OF THE CAUSE 

In causal situations we are not always certain about what is causing what--in other 

words, what is the cause and what is the effect. Misidentifying the cause is easy to 

do. For example, which are the causes and which are the effects in the following 

pairs of items? Why? 

· Poverty and alcoholism 

· Headaches and tension 

· Failure in school and personal problems

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474 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

· Shyness and lack of confidence 

· Drug dependency and emotional difficulties 

Of course, sometimes a third factor is responsible for both of the effects we are 

examining. For example, the headaches and tension we are experiencing may both 

be the result of a third element--such as some new medication we are taking. When 

this occurs, we are said to commit the fallacy of ignoring a common cause. There 

also exists the fallacy of assuming a common cause--for example, assuming that 

both a sore toe and an earache stem from the same cause.

POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC 

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12 Chapter 1 Thinking

Once this process of identifying and ranking your goals is complete, you 

can then focus on devising effective plans and strategies to achieve your goals. 

In order to complete this stage of the goal-seeking process, select the goal that 

you ranked 1 or 2, and then list all of the steps in the order in which they need 

to be taken to achieve your goal successfully. After completing this list, esti- 

mate how much time each step will take and plan the step in your daily/weekly 

schedule. For example, if your goal is to prepare for a quiz in biology, your steps 

might include:

Goal: Prepare for biology quiz in 2 days 

Steps to be taken: Time involved: Schedule: 

1. Photocopy the notes for the 20 minutes after next class 

class I missed last week 

2. Review reading assignments 2 hours tonight 

and class notes 

3. Make a summary review 1 hour tomorrow night 

sheet 

4. Study the review sheet 30 minutes right before quiz 

Although this method may seem a little mechanical the first few times you use 

it, it will soon become integrated into your thinking processes and become a natu- 

ral and automatic approach to achieving the goals in your daily life. Much of our 

failure to achieve our short-term goals is due to the fact that we skip one or more 

of the steps in this process. Common thinking errors in seeking our goals include 

the following: 

· We neglect to explicitly identify important goals. 

· We concentrate on less important goals first, leaving insufficient time to work 

on more important goals. 

· We don't identify all of the steps required to achieve our goals, or we 

approach them in the wrong order. 

· We underestimate the time each step will take and/or fail to plan the steps in 

therefore 

because of it." It refers to those situations in which, because two things occur close 

together in time, we assume that one caused the other. For example, if your team 

wins the game each time you wear your favorite shirt, you might be tempted to 

conclude that the one event (wearing your favorite shirt) has some influence on the 

other event (winning the game). As a result, you might continue to wear this shirt 

"for good luck." It is easy to see how this sort of mistaken thinking can lead to all 

sorts of superstitious beliefs. 

Consider the causal conclusion arrived at by Mark Twain's fictional character 

Huckleberry Finn in the following passage. How would you analyze the conclusion 

that he comes to? 

I've always reckoned that looking at the new moon over your left shoulder is one 

of the carelessest and foolishest things a body can do. Old Hank Bunker done it 

once, and bragged about it; and in less than two years he got drunk and fell off 

a shot tower and spread himself out so that he was just a kind of layer. . . . But 

anyway, it all come of looking at the moon that way, like a fool.

Can you identify any of your own superstitious beliefs or practices that might have 

been the result of post hoc thinking?

SLIPPERY SLOPE 

The causal fallacy of slippery slope is illustrated in the following advice: 

Don't miss that first deadline, because if you do, it won't be long before you're 

missing all your deadlines. This will spread to the rest of your life, as you will be 

late for every appointment. This terminal procrastination will ruin your career, 

and friends and relatives will abandon you. You will end up a lonely failure who 

is unable to ever do anything on time.

Slippery slope thinking asserts that one undesirable action will inevitably lead to a 

worse action, which will necessarily lead to a worse one still, all the way down the

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Causal Fallacies 475

"slippery slope" to some terrible disaster at the bottom. Although this progression 

may indeed happen, there is certainly no causal guarantee that it will. Create slip- 

pery slope scenarios for one of the follo our schedule.

Method for Achieving Short-Term Goals 

Step 1: Identify the goals. 

Identify the short-term goals. 

Rank the goals in order of importance. 

Select the most important goal(s) to focus on.

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Working Toward Goals 13

Step 2: Devise effective plans to achieve your goals. 

List all of the steps in the order in which they should be taken. 

Estimate how much time each step will take. 

Plan the steps in your daily/weekly schedule.

ACHIEVING LONG-TERM GOALS 

Identifying immediate or "short-term" goals tends to be a fairly simple procedure. 

Identifying the appropriate "long-term" goals is a much more complex and challenging 

process: career aims, plans for marriage, paying for children's college, goals for personal 

development. Think, for example, about the people you know who have full-time 

jobs. How many of these people get up in the morning excited and looking forward 

to going to work that day? Probably not that high a number. The unfortunate fact is 

that many people have not been successful in identifying the most appropriate career 

goals for themselves, goals that reflect their true interests and talents. 

How do you identify the most appropriate long-term goals for yourself? To 

begin with, you need to develop an in-depth understanding of yourself: your 

talents, your interests, the things that stimulate you and bring you satisfaction. 

You also need to discover what your possibilities are, either through research 

or actual experience. Of course, your goals do not necessarily remain the same 

throughout your life. It is unlikely that the goals you had as an eight-year-old are 

the ones you have now. As you grow and mature, it is natural for your goals to 

change and evolve as well. The key point is that you should keep examining your 

goals to make sure that they reflect your own thinking and current interests. 

Research studies have shown that high-achieving people are able to envision a 

detailed, three-dimensional picture of their future in which their goals and aspira- 

tions are clearly inscribed. In addition, they are able to construct a mental plan that 

includes the sequence of steps they will have to take, the amount of time each step 

will involve, and strategies for overcoming the obstacles they will likely encounter. 

Such realistic and compelling concepts of the future enable these people to make 

sacrifices in the present to achieve their long-term goals. Of course, they may 

modify these goals as circumstances change and they acquire more information, 

but they retain a well-defined, flexiblwing warnings: 

· If you get behind on one credit card payment . . . 

· If you fail that first test . . . 

· If you eat that first fudge square . . . 

Review the causal fallacies just described and then identify and explain the 

reasoning pitfalls illustrated in the following examples: 

· The person who won the lottery says that she dreamed the winning numbers. 

I'm going to start writing down the numbers in my dreams. 

· Yesterday I forgot to take my vitamins, and I immediately got sick. That 

mistake won't happen again! 

· I'm warning you--if you start missing classes, it won't be long before you 

flunk out of school and ruin your future. 

· I always take the first seat in the bus. Today I took another seat, and the bus 

broke down. And you accuse me of being superstitious! 

· I think the reason I'm not doing well in school is that I'm just not interested. 

Also, I simply don't have enough time to study. 

Many people want us to see the cause and effect relationships that they believe 

exist, and they often utilize questionable or outright fallacious reasoning. Consider 

the following examples: 

· Advertisers tell us that using this detergent will leave our wash "cleaner than 

clean, whiter than white." 

· Doctors tell us that eating a balanced diet will result in better health. 

· Educators tell us that a college degree is worth an average of $1,140,000 

additional income over an individual's life. 

· Scientists inform us that nuclear energy will result in a better life for all. 

In an effort to persuade us to adopt a certain point of view, each of these examples 

makes certain causal claims about how the world operates. As critical thinkers, it is 

our duty to evaluate these various causal claims in an effort to figure out whether 

they are sensible ways of organizing the world. 

Explain how you might go about evaluating whether each of the following 

causal claims makes sense: 

EXAMPLE: Taking the right vitamins will improve health. 

EVALUATION: Review the medical research that examines the effect of taking 

vitamins on health; speak to a nutritionist; speak to a doctor.

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476 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

· Sweet Smell deodorant will keep you drier all day long. 

· Allure perfume will cause people to be attracted to you. 

· Natural childbirth will result in a more fulfilling birth experience. 

· Aspirin Plus will give you faster, longer-lasting relief from headaches. 

· Listening to loud music will damage your hearing.

Fallacies of Relevance 

Many fallacious arguments appeal for support to factors that have little or nothing 

to e plan that charts their life course. 

Research also reveals that people who are low achievers tend to live in the pre- 

sent and the past. Their concepts of the future are vague and ill defined: "I want to be 

happy" or "I want a high-paying job." This unclear concept of the future makes it diffi- 

cult for them to identify the most appropriate goals for themselves, to devise effective 

strategies for achieving these goals, and to make the necessary sacrifices in the pre- 

sent that will ensure that the future becomes a reality. For example, imagine that you 

are faced with the choice of studying for an exam or participating in a social activity. 

What would you do? If you are focusing mainly on the present rather than the future, 

then the temptation to go out with your friends may be too strong. But if you see this

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14 Chapter 1 Thinking

exam as connected to a future that is real and extremely important to you, then you 

are better equipped to sacrifice a momentary pleasant time for your future happiness.

Thinking Activity 1.2 

ANALYZING AN IMPORTANT FUTURE GOAL 

Apply some of the insights we have been examining about working toward goals to 

a situation in your own life. 

1. Describe as specifically as possible an important longer-term goal that you want 

to achieve in your life. Your goal can be academic, professional, or personal. 

2. Explain the reasons that led you to select the goal that you did and why you 

believe that your goal makes sense. 

3. Identify both the major and minor steps you will have to take to achieve your 

goal. List your steps in the order in which they need to be taken and indicate 

how much time you think each step will take. Make your responses as specific 

and precise as possible. 

4. Identify some of the sacrifices that you may have to make in the present in 

order to achieve your future goal.

Images, Decision Making, and Thinking 

About Visual Information 

Journalists, scientists, website creators, lawyers, advertisers--the variety of profes- 

sions that rely on visuals to communicate is staggering. From college and military 

recruitment brochures to consumer advertising to a company's annual reports, 

images work in both subtle and overt ways to persuade us to do, believe, or buy 

something. As a critical thinker, you must pay attention to the ways in which 

images can inspire, support, and reflect your belido with the argument being offered. In these cases, false appeals substitute for 

sound reasoning and a critical examination of the issues. Such appeals, known as 

fallacies of relevance, include the following kinds of fallacious thinking, which are 

grouped by similarity into "fallacy families": 

· Appeal to authority 

· Appeal to tradition 

· Bandwagon 

· Appeal to pity 

· Appeal to fear 

· Appeal to flattery 

· Special pleading 

· Appeal to ignorance 

· Begging the question 

· Straw man 

· Red herring 

· Appeal to personal attack 

· Two wrongs make a right

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY 

In Chapter 5, we explored the ways in which we sometimes appeal to authorities to 

establish our beliefs or prove our points. At that time, we noted that to serve as a 

basis for beliefs, authorities must have legitimate expertise in the area in which they 

are advising--like an experienced mechanic diagnosing a problem with your car. 

People, however, often appeal to authorities who are not qualified to give an expert 

opinion. Consider the reasoning in the following advertisements. Do you think the 

arguments are sound? Why or why not? 

Hi. You've probably seen me out on the football field. After a hard day's work 

crushing halfbacks and sacking quarterbacks, I like to settle down with a cold, 

smooth Maltz beer.

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Fallacies of Relevance 477

SONY. Ask anyone. 

Over 11 million women will read this ad. Only 16 will own the coat. 

Each of these arguments is intended to persuade us of the value of a product 

through appeal to various authorities. In the first case, the authority is a well-known 

sports figure; in the second, the authority is large numbers of people; and in the 

third, the authority is a select few, appealing to our desire to be exclusive ("snob 

appeal"). Unfortunately, none of these authorities offer legitimate expertise about 

the product. Football players are not beer experts; large numbers of people are 

often misled; exclusive grouefs and your goals. 

Each chapter of Thinking Critically includes a feature that challenges you to 

apply new thinking strategies to pairs of images that provoke the viewer into 

finding connections, confronting beliefs, and questioning evidence. This feature is 

called "Thinking Critically About Visuals."

IMAGES, PERCEIVING, AND THINKING 

Whether they are recording events as they happen or reflecting imaginatively on their 

personal experiences, visual artists in all media (painters, cartoonists, graphic artists, 

photographers, and others) are fundamentally aware that they are communicating-- 

that, even without words, their images will tell a story, make an argument, show a 

process, or provide information. In order for you to think critically about the many 

kinds of information you encounter in your personal, academic, and professional life, 

you need to understand how these images are created and the purposes they serve.

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Images, Decision Making, and Thinking About Visual Information 15

Images and Learning In college, you will often be asked to present information 

in a visual manner. Classes in the sciences and social sciences require you to pre- 

sent numerical data in the form of charts, graphs, and maps. In the visual arts 

and humanities, you may be asked to analyze a painting's message and style or to 

describe a film director's approach to setting a scene. As you read your textbooks, 

study your instructor's PowerPoint slides, and conduct your own research, be sure 

that you understand the point of visual information and how it complements writ- 

ten information. In addition, be sure to ask your instructors for each of your classes 

how to locate, correctly cite, and usefully include images in your own essays and 

research papers.

Images, Creative Thinking, and Problem Solving Creative thinking teaches us 

that there are many different ways of experiencing and communicating informa- 

tion. When you use any of the creative or critical approaches to problem solving 

discussed in this book, try to incorporate visual as well as verbal descriptions and 

information. You could collect images from magazines, books, and online sources, 

and print them out or scan them electronically to create a kind of visual "mind 

map." Or you could look online at sites such as The National Archives, Flickr.com, 

and Google Images, all of which allow you to search for images using key words 

related to your task.

Images and "Reading" As you come across visual images to use in your essays, 

reports, and arguments, remember that theps of people are frequently mistaken in their beliefs. To 

evaluate authorities properly, we have to ask: 

· What are the professional credentials on which the authorities' expertise 

is based? 

· Is their expertise in the area they are commenting on?

APPEAL TO TRADITION 

A member of the same fallacy family as appeal to authority, appeal to tradition 

argues that a practice or way of thinking is "better" or "right" simply because it is 

older, it is traditional, or it has "always been done that way." Although traditional 

beliefs often express some truth or wisdom--for example, "Good nutrition, exer- 

cise, and regular medical check-ups are the foundation of good health"--traditional 

beliefs are often misguided or outright false. Consider, for example, the belief that 

"intentional bleeding is a source of good health because it lets loose evil vapors 

in the body" or traditional practices like Victorian rib-crushing corsets, Chinese 

footbinding, or female circumcision. How do we tell which traditional beliefs or 

practices have merit? We need to think critically, evaluating the value based on 

informed reasons and compelling evidence. Critically evaluate the following tradi- 

tional beliefs: 

· Spare the rod and spoil the child. 

· Children should be seen and not heard. 

· Never take "no" for an answer. 

· I was always taught that a woman's place was in the home, so pursuing a 

career is out of the question for me. 

· Real men don't cry--that's the way I was brought up.

BANDWAGON 

Joining the illogical appeals to authority and tradition, the fallacy bandwagon relies 

on the uncritical acceptance of others' opinions, in this case because "everyone 

believes it." People experience this all the time through "peer pressure," when an 

unpopular view is squelched and modified by the group opinion. For example, you 

may change your opinion when confronted with the threat of ridicule or rejection

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478 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

from your friends. Or you may modify your point of view at work or in your reli- 

gious organization in order to conform to the prevailing opinion. In all of these 

cases your views are being influenced by a desire to "jump on the bandwagon" and 

avoid getting left by yourself on the side of the road. The bandwagon mentality 

also extends to media appeals based on views of select groups such as celebrities or 

public opinion polls. Again, critical thinking is the tool that you have to distinguish 

an informed belief from a popular but uninformed belief. Critically evaluate the 

following bandwagon appeals:

· I used to think that _______ was my favorite kind of music. But my 

content of an image--just like the con- 

tent of a text--is composed of elements that work together to convey a message. 

Some of these elements are similar to those you consider when evaluating a piece of 

writing: setting, point of view, the relationship between characters, and an objective 

or subjective perspective. Other elements are specifically visual: how color is used, 

how images are manipulated in a graphics editor like Photoshop, how images are 

cropped (or cut), and how images are arranged on a page or screen. And, of course, 

how the text that accompanies images describes and contextualizes what you are 

seeing; this text, called a caption, should also be a part of your critical interpretation 

of visual evidence.

Images and Evaluation When you have gathered images that relate to your topic, 

you can use questions of fact, interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and 

application (pages 57­58) to help you sort through the visuals and select those that 

best support your purpose in writing. For example, a witty or satirical editorial 

cartoon about the federal response to Hurricane Katrina might be appropriate for 

an argument essay in which you analyze the political impact of that disaster, but 

for a paper about the storm's long-term environmental effects, you would be bet- 

ter served by a map showing the loss of land or a satellite photograph showing the 

extent of flood damage. 

The Thinking Critically About Visuals activity on pages 16­17 contains two 

photographs of very different kinds of "disaster"--both with devastating conse- 

quences for innocent people caught up in these events.

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16 Chapter 1 Thinking

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Perspectives on War's Impact on Children 

Civil war has torn apart the African nation of Sudan since the mid-twentieth century. 

In 2004, this Sudanese child fled to neighboring Chad, where the humanitarian group 

Doctors Without Borders set up the makeshift hospital where he is waiting for help. 

y Njunguna/Reuters/Corbis 

Antony j g

From what perspective is this photograph taken? What makes this perspective 

especially compelling? Compare this perspective (and the physical position of the 

photographer) with that of the image on the facing page. In what ways, and in 

what contexts, can visual images tell stories from the perspective of someone 

other than the photographer?

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Editorial review has deemed friends convinced me that only losers enjoy this music. So I've stopped 

listening to it. 

· Hollywood celebrities and supermodels agree: Tattoos in unusual places are 

very cool. That's good enough for me! 

· In the latest Gallup Poll, 86 percent of those polled believe that economic 

recovery will happen in the next six months, so I must be wrong.

APPEAL TO PITY 

Consider the reasoning in the following arguments. Do you think that the argu- 

ments are sound? Why or why not?

I know that I haven't completed my term paper, but I really think that I should be 

excused. This has been a very difficult semester for me. I caught every kind of flu 

that came around. In addition, my brother has a drinking problem, and this has 

been very upsetting to me. Also, my dog died. 

I admit that my client embezzled money from the company, your honor. 

However, I would like to bring several facts to your attention. He is a fam- 

ily man, with a wonderful wife and two terrific children. He is an important 

member of the community. He is active in the church, coaches a Little League 

baseball team, and has worked very hard to be a good person who cares about 

people. I think that you should take these things into consideration in handing 

down your sentence.

In each of these appeal to pity arguments, the reasons offered to support the conclu- 

sions may indeed be true. They are not, however, relevant to the conclusion. Instead 

of providing evidence that supports the conclusion, the reasons are designed to 

make us feel sorry for the person involved and therefore agree with the conclusion 

out of sympathy. Although these appeals are often effective, the arguments are not 

sound. The probability of a conclusion can be established only by reasons that sup- 

port and are relevant to the conclusion. 

Of course, not every appeal to pity is fallacious. There are instances in which 

pity may be deserved, relevant, and decisive. For example, if you are soliciting a

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Fallacies of Relevance 479

charitable donation, or asking a friend for a favor, an honest and straightforward 

appeal to pity may be appropriate.

APPEAL TO FEAR 

Consider the reasoning in the following arguments. Do you think that the argu- 

ments are sound? Why or why not? 

I'm afraid I don't think you deserve a raise. After all, there are many people 

who would be happy to have your job at the salary you are currently receiving. 

I would be happy to interview some of these people if you really think that you 

are underpaid. 

If you continue to disagree with my interpretation of The Catcher in the Rye, I'm 

afraid you won't get a very good grade on your term paper.

In both of these arguments, the conclusions being suggested are supported by 

an appeal to fear, not by reasons that provide evidence for the conclusions. In 

the first case, the threat is that if you do not forgo your salary demands, your 

job may be in jeopardy. In the second case, the threat is that if you do not agree 

with the teacher's interpretation, you will fail the course. In neither instance 

are the real issues--Is a salary increase deserved? Is the student's interpretation 

legitimate?--being discussed. People who appeal to fear to support their conclu- 

sions are interested only in prevailing, regardless of which position might be 

more justified.

APPEAL TO FLATTERY 

Flattery joins the emotions of pity and fear as a popular source of fallacious reason- 

ing. This kind of apple polishing is designed to influence the thinking of others by 

appealing to their vanity as a substitute for providing relevant evidence to support 

your point of view. Of course, flattery is often a harmless lubricant for social rela- 

tionships, and it can also be used in conjunction with compelling reasoning. But 

appeal to flattery enters the territory of fallacy when it is the main or sole support of 

your claim, such as "This is absolutely the best course I've ever taken. And I'm really 

hoping for an A to serve as an emblem of your excellent teaching." Think critically 

about the following examples: 

· You have a great sense of humor, boss, and I'm particularly fond of your racial 

and homosexual jokes. They crack me up! And while we're talking, I'd like to 

remind you how much I'm hoping for the opportunity to work with you if I 

receive the promotion that you're planning to give to one of us. 

· You are a beautiful human being, inside and out. Why don't you stay the night? 

· You are so smart. I wish I had a brain like yours. Can you give me any hints 

about the chemistry test you took today? I'm taking it tomorrow.

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480 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Stop and Think 

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Images, Decision Making, and Thinking About Visual Information 17

In the photo below, Iraqi boys play with toy guns in a Baghdad alley in May of 2003. 

At this time, U.S. and British troops occupying Iraq had just launched a two-week 

weapons amnesty in a bid to get Iraqis to hand over rifles and guns that had flooded 

the streets since the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. What makes this photo so 

provocative? How do you think war has affected the thinking and emotions of these 

Iraqi boys?

In time of war, 

children are typically 

the most tragic 

victims. These two 

photos illustrate 

the different effects 

war can have on 

children. What are 

the likely long-term 

impacts war will have 

on these children? 

What do you think 

the intentions of the 

photographers were in 

each of these photos? 

What approach did 

they use in order 

to convey their 

meaning? 

© Reuters/Corbis

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18 Chapter 1 Thinking

Thinking Passage 

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF MALCOLM X 

Born as Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of an activist Baptist preacher, 

Malcolm X saw racial injustice and violence from a very young age. His father, Earl 

Little, was outspoken in his support for Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey; 

as a result, the family was the target of harassment and was forced to move fre- 

quently. In 1931, Earl Little's body was found on the town's trolley tracks. Although 

the local police dismissed it as an accident, Earl Little's death was believed to have 

been a murder committed by white supremacists. Malcolm dropped out of high 

school after a teacher's contemptuous discouragement of his ambitions to become 

a lawyer. For the next several years, he moved between Boston and New York, 

becoming profitably involved in various criminal activities. After a conviction for 

burglary in Boston, he was sentenced to prison. There he began writing letters to 

former friends as well as to various government officials. His frustration in trying 

to express his ideas led him to a course of self-education, desby the Do It Now Foundation, formed in 1968 to provide 

education and outreach about drug abuse but which now addresses a wide range of 

health and social issues such as sexuality, eating disorders, and alcoholism. 

Courtesy, Do It Now Foundation

Many school districts and private groups promote an "abstinence-only" approach to 

sex education, or encourage young people to remain virgins until marriage. Reasons 

given for abstinence education range from moral and religious principles (including 

"purity pledges" and "secondary virginity") to avoidance of pregnancy and sexually 

transmitted diseases. Do a web search using terms such as abstinence education and 

secondary virginity to find sites with information on such programs and organiza- 

tions. What kinds of appeals--or fallacies--do these websites use to promote their 

message? Examine the origins and assumptions behind each site's message.

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Fallacies of Relevance 481

The Campaign to End AIDS 

was founded in 2005 as a 

coalition of diverse people 

living with HIV/AIDS, their 

families and caretakers, and 

others. The group 

advocates accessible and 

affordable health care for 

people with HIV/AIDS, 

research into treatments 

and cures, and HIV educa- 

tion and prevention.

Both of these images use 

the universally understood 

sign for STOP, but to con- 

vey very different mes- 

sages. Are either or both 

of these messages effec- 

tive examples of inductive 

reasoning? What are the 

causal relationships implied 

by each message, and how 

clearly does each message 

use causal reasoning to 

support its claim? 

© Matthias Kulka/Corbis

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482 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

SPECIAL PLEADING 

This fallacy occurs when someone makes him- or herself a special exception, with- 

out sound justification, to the reasonable application of standards, principles, or 

expectations. For example, consider the following exchange: 

"Hey, hon, could you get me a beer? I'm pooped from work today." 

"Well, I'm exhausted from working all day, too! Why don't you get it yourself?" 

"I need you to get it because I'm really thirsty." 

As we saw in Chapter 4, we view the world through our own lenses, and these lenses 

tend to see the world as tilted toward our interests. That's why special pleading is 

such a popular fallacy: We're used to treating our circumstances as unique and 

deserving of special consideration when compared to the circumstances of oth- 

ers. Of course, other people tend to see things from a very different perspective. 

Critically evaluate the following examples: 

· I know that the deadline for the paper was announced several weeks ago and 

that you made clear there would be no exceptions, but I'm asking you to make 

an exception because I experienced some very bad breaks. 

· I really don't like it when you check out other men and comment on their 

physiques. I know that I do that toward other women, but it's a "guy thing." 

· Yes, I would like to play basketball with you guys, but I want to warn you: As 

a woman, I don't like getting bumped around, so keep your distance. 

· I probably shouldn't have used funds from the treasury for my own personal 

use, but after all I am the president of the organization.

APPEAL TO IGNORANCE 

Consider the reasoning in the following arguments. Do you think that the argu- 

ments are sound? Why or why not? 

You say that you don't believe in God. But can you prove that He doesn't exist? If 

not, then you have to accept the conclusion that He does in fact exist. 

Greco Tires are the best. No others have been proved better. 

With me, abortion is not a problem of religion. It's a problem of the Constitution. 

I believe that until and unless someone can establish that the unborn child is not a 

living human being, then that child is already protected by the Constitution, which 

guarantees life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness to all of us. 

When the appeal to ignorance argument form is used, the person offering the conclusion 

is asking his or her opponent to disprove the conclusion. If the opponent is unable to do 

so, then the conclusion is asserted to be true. This argument fcribed in the follow- 

ing excerpt from The Autobiography of Malcolm X. After his release from prison, 

Malcolm converted to Islam and rose to prominence in the Nation of Islam. A 

pilgrimage that he made to Saudi Arabia led him to begin working toward heal- 

ing and reconciliation for Americans of all races. Unfortunately, the enemies he 

had made and the fears he had provoked did not leave Malcolm X much time to 

share this message. Three assassins gunned him down as he spoke at the Audubon 

Ballroom in Harlem on February 15, 1965.

Text not available due to copyright restrictions

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Images, Decision Making, and Thinking About Visual Information 19

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20 Chapter 1 Thinking

Text not available due to copyright restrictions

An Organized Approach to Making Decisions 

Identifying and reaching the goals in our lives involves making informed, intelligent 

decisions. Many of the decisions we make are sound and thoughtful, but we may also 

find that some of the decisions we make turn out poorly, undermining our efforts to 

achieve the things we most want in life. Many of our poor decisions involve relatively 

minor issues--for example, selecting an unappealing dish in a restaurant, agree- 

ing to go out on a blind date, taking a course that does not meet our expectations. 

Although these decisions may result in unpleasant consequences, the discomfort is 

neither life-threatening nor long-lasting (although a disappointing course may seem 

to last forever!). However, there are many more significant decisions in our lives 

in which poor choices can result in considerably more damaging and far-reaching 

consequences. For example, one reason that the current divorce rate in the United 

States stands at approximately 50 percent (for first marriages) is the poor decisions 

people make before or after the vows "till death do us part." Similarly, the fact that 

many employed adults wake up in the morning unhappy about going to their jobs, 

anxiously waiting for the end of the day and the conclusion of the week so they are 

free to do what they really want to do, suggests that somewhere along the line they 

made poor career decisions, or they felt trapped by circumstances they couldn't con- 

trol. Our jobs should be much more than a way to earn a paycheck--they should be 

vehicles for using our professional skills, opportunities for expressing our creative 

talents, stimulants to our personal growth and intellectual development, and experi- 

ences that provide us with feelings of fulfillment and self-esteem. In the final analysis, 

our careers are central elements of our lives and important dimensions of our life- 

portraits. Our career decision is one that we'd better try to get right! 

An important part of becoming an educated thinker is learning to make effec- 

tive decisions. Let's explore the process of making effective decisions.

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An Organized Approach to Making Decisions 21

Thinking Activity 1.3 

ANALYZING A PREVIOUS DECISION 

1. Think back on an important decision that you made that turned out well, and 

describe the experience as specifically as possible. 

2. Reconstruct the reasoning process that you used to make your decision. Did you: 

· Clearly define the decision to be made and the related issues? 

· Consider various choices and anticipate the consequences of these various 

choices? 

· Gather additional information to help in your analysis? 

· Evaluate the various pros and cons of different courses of action? 

· Use a chart or diagram to aid in your deliberations? 

· Create a specific plan of action to implement your ideas? 

· Periodically review your decision to make necessary adjustments? 

As you reflected on the successful decision you were writing about in Thinking 

Activity 1.3, you probably noticed your mind working in a more or less systematic 

way as you thought your way through the decision situation. Of course, we often 

make important decisions with less thoughtful analysis by acting impulsively or rely- 

ing on our "intuition." Sometimes these decisions work out well, but often they don't, 

and we are forced to live with the consequences of these mistaken choices. People 

who approach decision situations thoughtfully and analytically tend to be more 

successful decision makers than people who don't. Naturally, there are no guaran- 

tees that a careful analysis will lead to a successful result--there are often too many 

unknown elements and factors beyond our control. But we can certainly improve 

our success rate as well as our speed by becoming more knowledgeable about the 

decision-making process. Expert decision makers can typically make quick, accurate 

decisions based on intuitions that are informed, not merely impulsive. However, as 

with most complex abilities in life, we need to learn to "walk" before we can "run," 

so let's explore a versatile and effective approach for making decisions. 

The decision-making approach we will be using consists of five steps. As you 

gradually master these steps, they will become integrated into your way of thinking, 

and you will be able to apply them in a natural and flexible way.

Step 1: Define the Decision Clearly This seems like an obvious step, but a lot of 

decision making goes wrong at the starting point. For example, imagine that you 

decide that you want to have a "more active social life." The problem with this char- 

acterization of your decision is it defines the situation too generally and therefore 

doesn't give any clear direction for your analysis. Do you want to develop an inti- 

mate, romantic relationship? Do you want to cultivate more close friendships? Do 

you want to engage in more social activities? Do you want to meet new people? In 

short, there are many ways to define more clearly the decision to have a "more active

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22 Chapter 1 Thinking

social life." The more specific your definition of the decision to be made, the clearer 

will be your analysis and the greater the likelihood of success. 

STRATEGY: Write a one-page analysis that articulates your decision-making 

situation as clearly and specifically as possible.

Step 2: Consider All the Possible Choices Successful decision makers explore all of 

the possible choices in their situation, not simply the obvious ones. In fact, the less 

obvious choices often turn out to be the most effective ones. For example, a student 

in a recent class of mine couldn't decide whether he should major in accounting or 

business management. In discussing his situation with other members of the class, 

he revealed that his real interest was in the area of graphic design and illustration. 

Although he was very talented, he considered this area to be only a hobby, not a 

possible career choice. Class members pointed out to him that this might turn out 

to be his best career choice, but he needed first to sorm is not valid because it 

is the job of the person proposing the argument to prove the conclusion. Simply because 

an opponent cannot disprove the conclusion offers no evidence that the conclusion is in 

fact justified. In the first example, for instance, the fact that someone cannot prove that 

God does not exist provides no persuasive reason for believing that he does.

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Fallacies of Relevance 483

BEGGING THE QUESTION 

This fallacy is also known as circular reasoning because the premises of the argu- 

ment assume or include the claim that the conclusion is true. For example:

"How do I know that I can trust you?" 

"Just ask Adrian; she'll tell you." 

"How do I know that I can trust Adrian?" 

"Don't worry; I'll vouch for her."

Begging the question is often found in self-contained systems of belief, such as poli- 

tics or religion. For example:

"My religion worships the one true God." 

"How can you be so sure?" 

"Because our Holy Book says so." 

"Why should I believe this Holy Book?" 

"Because it was written by the one true God."

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Fallacies in Action 

What fallacies do you think 

are being put forward by this 

photograph of a TV pitchman 

hawking his wares? How per- 

suasive have you found those 

techniques to be in your own 

life, from your perspectives as 

both a speaker and a listener? 

AP Photo/Chris O'Meara, File

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484 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

In other words, the problem with this sort of reasoning is that instead of providing 

relevant evidence in support of a conclusion, it simply goes in a circle by assum- 

ing the truth of what it is supposedly proving. Critically evaluate the following 

examples: 

· Smoking marijuana has got to be illegal. Otherwise, it wouldn't be against 

the law. 

· Of course, I'm telling you the truth. Otherwise, I'd be lying.

STRAW MAN 

This fallacy is best understood by visualizing its name: You attack someone's point 

of view by creating an exaggerated straw man version of the position, and then you 

knock down the straw man you just created. For example, consider the following 

exchange: 

"I'm opposed to the missile defense shield because I think it's a waste of money." 

"So you want to undermine the security of our nation and leave the country 

defenseless. Are you serious?"

The best way to combat this fallacy is to point out that the straw man does not 

reflect an accurate representation of your position. For instance: 

"On the contrary, I'm very concerned about national security. The money that 

would be spent on a nearly useless defense shield can be used to combat terrorist 

threats, a much more credible threat than a missile attack. Take your straw man 

somewhere else!" 

How would you respond to the following arguments? 

· You're saying that the budget for our university has to be reduced by 15 per- 

cent to meet state guidelines. That means reducing the size of the faculty and 

student population by 15 percent, and that's crazy. 

· I think we should work at keeping the apartment clean; it's a mess. 

· So you're suggesting that we discontinue our lives and become full-time 

maids so that we can live in a pristine, spotless, antiseptic apartment. 

That's no way to live!

RED HERRING 

Also known as "smoke screen" and "wild goose chase," the red herring fallacy is 

committed by introducing an irrelevant topic in order to divert attention from the 

original issue being discussed. So, for example: 

I'm definitely in favor of the death penalty. After all, overpopulation is a big prob- 

lem in our world today.

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Fallacies of Relevance 485

Although this is certainly a novel approach to addressing the problem of overpopu- 

lation, it's not really relevant to the issue of capital punishment. Critically evaluate 

the following examples: 

· I think all references to sex should be eliminated from films and music. Premarital 

sex and out-of-wedlock childbirths are creating moral decay in our society. 

· I really don't believe that grade inflation is a significant problem in higher 

education. Everybody wants to be liked, and teachers are just trying to get 

students to like them.

APPEAL TO PERSONAL ATTACK 

Consider the reasoning in the following arguments. Do you think that the argu- 

ments are valid? Why or why not? 

Your opinion on this issue is false. It's impossible to believe anything you say. 

How can you have an intelligent opinion about abortion? You're not a woman, so 

this is a decision that you'll never have to make. 

Appeal to personal attack has been one of the most frequently used fallacies 

through the ages. Its effectiveness results from ignoring the issues of the argument 

and focusing instead on the personal qualities of the person making the argument. 

By trying to discredit the other person, this argument form tries to discredit the 

argument--no matter what reasons are offered. This fallacy is also referred to as 

the ad hominem argument, which means "to the man" rather than to the issue, and 

poisoning the well because we are trying to ensure that any water drawn from our 

opponent's well will be treated as undrinkable. 

The effort to discredit can take two forms, as illustrated in the preceding exam- 

ples. The fallacy can be abusive in the sense that we are directly attacking the cred- 

ibility of our opponent (as in the first example). The fallacy can be circumstantial 

in the sense that we are claiming that the person's circumstances, not character, 

render his or her opinion so biased or uninformed that it cannot be treated seri- 

ously (as in the second example). Other examples of the circumstantial form of the 

fallacy would include disregarding the views on nuclear plant safety given by an 

owner of one of the plants or ignoring the views of a company comparing a product 

it manufactures with competing products.

TWO WRONGS MAKE A RIGHT 

This fallacy attempts to justify a morally questionable action by arguing that it is a 

response to another wrong action, either real or imagined, in fact, that two wrongs 

make a right. For example, someone undercharged at a store might justify keeping 

the extra money by reasoning that "I've probably been overcharged many times in the 

past, and this simply equals things out." Or he or she might even speculate, "I am likely 

to be overcharged in the future, so I'm keeping this in anticipation of being cheated."

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486 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

This is a fallacious way of thinking because each action is independent and must be 

evaluated on its own merits. If you're overcharged and knowingly keep the money, 

that's stealing. If the store knowingly overcharges you, that's stealing as well. If the 

store inadvertently overcharges you, that's a mistake. Or as expressed in a common 

saying, "Two wrongs don't make a right." Critically evaluate the following examples: 

· Terrorists are justified in killing innocent people because they and their people 

have been the victims of political repression and discriminatory policies. 

· Capital punishment is wrong because killing murderers is just as bad as the 

killings they committed.

Thinking Critically About New Media 

Internet Hoaxes, Scams, and Urban Legends 

As we have seen in this chapter, fallacies are unsound arguments that are often persuasive 

and appear to be logical because they usually appeal to our emotions and prejudices, and 

because they often support conclusions that we want to believe are accurate. One expres- 

sion of fallacious thinking in new media can be found in the existence of Internet Hoaxes: 

messages, offers, solicitations, advice, or threats that are often seductive in their appeal 

but false and sometimes dangerous. The hoaxes come in all shapes and sizes: "helping" 

someone from an African country transfer 20 million dollars; receiving birthday greetings 

from a secret admirer; verifying your credit card information with an alleged bank; passing 

along a message to 10 friends with the hope of receiving special blessings or cash; help- 

ing to provide medical care for an ill or injured child; and many, many more. Often these 

hoaxes are harmless, resulting in nothing more than us wasting time and bandwidth by 

forwarding phony chain letters. Other times, however, we risk donating money to scam- 

artists, divulging credit or bank information to financial predators, or introducing destruc- 

tive viruses into our computer by opening attached files from Internet anarchists.

Most virus warnings are hoaxes and can be spotted by the following signs: 

· They falsely claim to describe an extremely dangerous virus. 

· They use pseudo-technical language to make impressive sounding claims. 

· They falsely claim that the report was issued or confirmed by a well-known company. 

· They ask you to forward it to all your friends and colleagues.

You should avoid passing on warnings of this kind, as the continued re-forwarding 

of these hoaxes wastes time and email bandwidth. Sometimes you may receive hoaxes 

with a file attached which may be infected with a virus. A good principle is to delete all 

hoaxes and never open an attached file from a source that you don't know personally.

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STRATEGY: List as many possible choices for your situation as you can, both 

obvious and not obvious. Ask other people for additional suggestions, and 

don't censor or prejudge any ideas. 

Step 3: Gather All Relevant Information and Evaluate the Pros and Cons of Each 

Possible Choice In many cases you may lack sufficient information to make an 

informed choice regarding a challenging, complex decision. Unfortunately, this 

doesn't prevent people from plunging ahead anyway, making a decision that 

is often more a gamble than an informed choice. Instead of this questionable 

approach, it makes a lot more sense to seek out the information you need in order 

to determine which of the choices you identified has the best chance for success. For 

example, in the case of the student mentioned in Step 2, there is important informa- 

tion he would need to have before determining whether he should consider a career 

in graphic design and illustration, including asking: What are the specific careers 

within this general field? What sort of academic preparation and experience are 

required for the various careers? What are the prospects for employment in these 

areas, and how well do they pay? 

STRATEGY: For each possible choice that you identified, create ques- 

tions regarding information you need to find out, and then locate that 

information. 

In addition to locating all relevant information, each of the possible choices you 

identified has certain advantages and disadvantages, and it is essential that you analyze 

these pros and cons in an organized fashion. For example, in the case of the student 

described earlier, the choice of pursuing a career in accounting may have advantages 

like ready employment opportunities, the flexibility of working in many differ- 

ent situations and geographical locations, moderate to high income expectations, 

and job security. On the other hand, disadvantages might include the fact that 

accounting may not reflect a deep and abiding interest for the student, he might

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An Organized Approach to Making Decisions 23

lose interest over time, or the career might not result in the personal challenge and 

fulfillment that he seeks. 

STRATEGY: Using a format similar to that outlined in the following work- 

sheet, analyze the pros and cons of each of your possible choices.

Define the decision: 

Possible choices: Information needed: Pros: Cons:

1. 

2. 

(and so on)

Step 4: Select the Choice That Seems to Best Meet the Needs of the Situation 

The first three steps of this approach are designed to help you analyze your 

decision situation: to clearly define the decision, generate possible choices, 

gather relevant information, and evaluate the pros and cons of the choices you 

identified. In this fourth step, you must attempt to synthesize all that you have 

learned, weaving together all of the various threads into a conclusion that you 

believe to be your "best" choice. How do you do this? There is no one simple way 

to identify your "best" choice, but there are some useful strategies for guiding 

your deliberations. 

STRATEGY: Identify and prioritize the goal(s) of your decision situation and 

determine which of your choices best meets these goals. This process will prob- 

ably involve reviewing and perhaps refining your definition of the decision 

situation. For example, in the case of the student whom we have been consid- 

ering, some goals might include choosing a career that will 

a. provide financial security. 

b. provide personal fulfillment. 

c. make use of special talents. 

d. offer plentiful opportunities and job security. 

Once identified, the goals can be ranked in order of their priority, which will 

then suggest what the "best" choice will be. For example, if the student ranks goals 

(a) and (d) at the top of the list, then a choice of accounting or business administra- 

tion might make sense. On the other hand, if the student ranks goals (b) and (c) at 

the top, then pursuing a career in graphic design and illustration might be the best 

selection. 

STRATEGY: Anticipate the consequences of each choice by "preliving" the 

choices. Another helpful strategy for deciding on the best choice is to project 

yourself into the future, imagining as realistically as you can the consequences

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24 Chapter 1 Thinking

of each possible choice. As with previous strategies, this process is aided by 

writing your thoughts down and discussing them with others.

Step 5: Implement a Plan of Action and Then Monitor the Results, Making 

Necessary Adjustments Once you have selected what you consider your best 

choice, you need to develop and implement a specific, concrete plan of action. 

ok and/or eChapter(s). 

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Fallacies of Relevance 487

Thinking Activity 11.6 

IDENTIFYING FALLACIES 

Locate (or develop) an example of each of the following kinds of false appeals. For 

each example, explain why you think that the appeal is not warranted. 

1. Appeal to authority 

2. Appeal to pity 

3. Appeal to fear 

4. Appeal to ignorance 

5. Appeal to personal attack

There are a number of sites devoted to uncovering these Internet hoaxes including:

www.snopes.com (Urban Legends Reference Pages) 

www.hoaxbusters.org 

urbanlegends.about.com

Hoaxbusters.com offers a guide to help detect whether an email is a hoax or the real deal. 

Included below are their "Top Five Signs That an E-mail Is a Hoax." After you read through 

their warning signs, conduct some independent research of your own by locating three pos- 

sible internet hoaxes and then analyzing their authenticity by applying the "5 Top Signs."

Top Five Signs That an E-mail Is a Hoax 

The next time that you receive an alarming e-mail calling you to action, look for one or 

more of these five telltale characteristics before even thinking about sending it along to 

anybody else.

Urgent 

The e-mail will have a great sense of urgency! You'll usually see a lot of exclamation 

points and capitalization. The subject line will typically be something like:

URGENT!!!!!! 

WARNING!!!!!! 

IMPORTANT!!!!!! 

VIRUS ALERT!!!!!! 

THIS IS NOT A JOKE!!!!!! 

(Continues)

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488 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

Thinking Critically About New Media 

(Continued) 

Tell All Your Friends 

There will always be a request that you share this "important information" by forwarding 

the message to everybody in your e-mail address book or to as many people as you pos- 

sibly can. This is a surefire sign that the message is a hoax.

This Isn't A Hoax 

The body of the e-mail may contain some form of corroboration, such as a pseudoquote 

from an executive of a major corporation or government official. The As was noted in the section on short-term goals, the more specific and con- 

crete your plan of action, the greater the likelihood of success. For example, if 

the student in the case we have been considering decides to pursue a career in 

graphic design and illustration, his plan should include reviewing the major that 

best meets his needs, discussing his situation with students and faculty in that 

department, planning the courses he will be taking, and perhaps speaking to 

people in the field.

Method for Making Decisions 

Step 1: Define the decision clearly. 

Step 2: Consider all the possible choices. 

Step 3: Gather all relevant information and evaluate the pros and cons of 

each possible choice. 

Step 4: Select the choice that seems to best meet the needs of the situation. 

Step 5: Implement a plan of action and then monitor the results, making 

necessary adjustments.

STRATEGY: Create a schedule that details the steps you will be taking to 

implement your decision and a timeline for taking these steps. 

Of course, your plan is merely a starting point for implementing your 

decision. As you actually begin taking the steps in your plan, you will likely 

discover that changes and adjustments need to be made. In some cases, you 

may find that, based on new information, the choice you selected appears to 

be the wrong one. For example, as the student we have been discussing takes 

courses in graphic design and illustration, he may find that his interest in the 

field is not as serious as he thought and that, although he likes this area as a 

hobby, he does not want it to be his life work. In this case, he should return to 

considering his other choices and perhaps add additional choices that he did 

not consider before. 

STRATEGY: After implementing your choice, evaluate its success by identi- 

fying what's working and what isn't, and make the necessary adjustments to 

improve the situation.

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Living Creatively 25 message may 

include a sincere-sounding premise, such as this, for example: My neighbor, who works 

for Microsoft, just received this warning so I know it's true. He asked me to pass this along 

to as many people as I can.

Sometimes the message will contain a link to Snopes to further confuse people. The 

references to Snopes are just red herrings, though, meant only to give a sense of legiti- 

macy to the hoax. The author knows that lots of folks will believe it because they see it 

in print and won't bother to really check it for themselves. Anyone actually bothering to 

check the story with Snopes would, of course, discover that it was not true. Hoax writers 

count on folks being too lazy to verify those stories before they hit the forward button.

It's all a bunch of baloney. Don't believe it for a second.

Watch for e-mails containing a subtle form of self-corroboration. Statements such as 

"This is serious!" or "This is not a hoax!" can be deceiving. Just because somebody says 

it's not a hoax doesn't make it so.

Dire Consequences 

The e-mail text will predict dire consequences if you don't act immediately. You are 

led to believe that a missing child will never be found unless the e-mail is forwarded 

immediately. It may infer that someone won't die happy unless they receive a bazillion 

business cards. Or it may state that a virus will destroy your hard drive and cause green 

fuzzy things to grow in your refrigerator.

History 

Look for a lot of >>>> marks in the left margin. These marks indicate that people suckered 

by the hoax have forwarded the message countless times before it has reached you.

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Fallacies of Relevance 489

In her book, Cyberliteracy, Laura Gurak identified three things that are common to 

all hoax and urban legend e-mail chain letters. They are the hook, the threat, and the 

request. To hook you in, a hoax will play on your sympathy, your greed, or your fears. It 

will threaten you with bad luck, play on your guilt, or label you a fool for not participating. 

And, of course, it will request that you forward the e-mail to all of your friends and family.

The hook catches your interest to make you read the whole e-mail. The hook may be 

a sad story about a missing or sick child, or about the lates

Thinking Activity 1.4 

ANALYZING A FUTURE DECISION 

1. Describe an important decision in your academic or personal life that you will 

have to make in the near future. 

2. Using the five-step decision-making approach we just described, analyze your 

decision and conclude with your "best" choice. 

Share your analysis with other members of the class and listen carefully to the 

feedback they give you.

Living Creatively 

Sometimes students become discouraged about their lives, concluding that their 

destinies are shaped by forces beyond their control. Although difficult circum- 

stances do hamper our striving for success, this fatalistic sentiment can also reflect 

a passivity that is the opposite of thinking critically. As a critical thinker, you should 

be confident that you can shape the person that you want to become through 

insightful understanding and intelligent choices. 

In working with this book, you will develop the abilities and attitudes needed 

to become an educated thinker and a successful person. You will also integrate 

these goals into a larger context, exploring how to live a life that is creative, profes- 

sionally successful, and personally fulfilling. By using both your creative and your 

critical thinking abilities, you can develop informed beliefs and an enlightened life 

philosophy. In the final analysis, the person who looks back at you in the mirror is 

the person you have created.

Thinking Activity 1.5 

DESCRIBING YOUR CURRENT AND FUTURE SELF 

1. Describe a portrait of yourself as a person. What sort of person are you? What 

are your strengths and weaknesses? In what areas do you feel you are creative? 

2. Describe some of the ways you would like to change yourself.

"CAN I BE CREATIVE?" 

The first day of my course Creative Thinking: Theory and Practice, I always ask the 

students in the class if they think they are creative. Typically fewer than half of the 

class members raise their hands. One reason for this is that people often confuse 

being "creative" with being "artistic"--skilled at art, music, poetry, creative writing, 

drama, dance. Although artistic people are certainly creative, there are an infinite 

number of ways to be creative that are not artistic. This is a mental trap that I fell 

into growing up. In school I always dreaded art class because I was so inept. My 

pathetic drawings and art projects were always good for a laugh for my friends, and

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26 Chapter 1 Thinking

I felt no overwhelming urges to write poetry, paint, or compose music. I was certain 

that I had simply been born "uncreative" and accepted this "fact" as my destiny. It 

wasn't until I graduated from college that I began to change this view of myself. I 

was working as a custom woodworker to support myself, designing and creating 

specialized furniture for people, when it suddenly struck me: I was being creative! I 

then began to see other areas of my life in which I was creative: playing sports, deco- 

rating my apartment, even writing research papers. I finally understood that being 

creative was a state of mind and a way of life. As writer Eric Gill expresses it, "The 

artist is not a different kind of person, but each one of us is a different kind of artist." 

Are you creative? Yes! Think of all of the activities that you enjoy doing: cooking, 

creating a wardrobe, raising children, playing sports, cutting or braiding hair, dancing, 

playing music. Whenever you are investing your own personal ideas, putting on your 

own personal stamp, you are being creative. For example, imagine that you are cooking 

your favorite dish. To the extent that you are expressing your unique ideas developed 

through inspiration and experimentation, you are being creative. Of course, if you are 

simply following someone else's recipe without significant modification, your dish 

may be tasty--but it is not creative. Similarly, if your moves on the dance floor or the 

basketball court express your distinctive personality, you are being creative, as you are 

when you stimulate the original thinking of your children or make your friends laugh 

with your unique brand of humor. (To find out more about your creativity, take the 

"How Creative Am I?" assessment in the appendix that starts on p. 548.) 

Living your life creatively means bringing your unique perspective and creative 

talents to all of the dimensions of your life. The following passages are written by 

students about creative areas in their lives. After reading the passages, complete 

Thinking Activity 1.6, which gives you the opportunity to describe a creative area 

from your own life. 

One of the most creative aspects of my life is my diet. I have been a vegetarian for 

the past five years, while the rest of my family has continued to eat meat. I had to over- 

come many obstacles to make this lifestyle work for me, including family dissension. 

The solution was simple: I had to learn how to cook creatively. I have come to realize 

that my diet is an ongoing learning process. The more I learn about and experiment 

with different foods, the healthier and happier I become. I feel like an explorer setting 

out on my own to discover new things about food and nutrition. I slowly evolved from 

a person who could cook food only if it came from a can into someone who could 

make bread from scratch and grow yogurt cultures. I find learning new things about 

nutrition ant computer virus. Once you're 

hooked, the threat warns you about the terrible things that will happen if you don't 

keep the chain going. The threat may be that someone will die if you don't respond, or 

that your computer will suffer a melt-down from the latest virus. Last is the request. It 

will implore you to send the message to as many others as possible. It may even prom- 

ise a small donation to a group with a legitimate-sounding name because they are able 

to track every forwarded e-mail (also a hoax).

Source: "Top 5 Signs That an Email Is a Hoax" from www.hoaxbusters.org/hoax10.html. 

Reprinted by permission.

Thinking Activity 11.7 

IDENTIFYING INTERNET HOAXES 

Use the guidelines that you have just read about to identify the telltale signs of a 

hoax in these examples:

Bill Gates Giveaway 

Dear Friends, Please do not take this for a junk letter. Bill Gates is sharing his 

fortune. If you ignore this you will repent later. Microsoft and AOL are now the 

largest Internet companies and in an effort to make sure that Internet Explorer 

remains the most widely used program, Microsoft and AOL are running an e-mail beta 

test. When you forward this e-mail to friends, Microsoft can and will track it (if you 

are a Microsoft Windows user) for a two-week time period. For every person that you 

forward this e-mail to, Microsoft will pay you $245.00, for every person that you sent 

it to that forwards it on, Microsoft will pay you $243.00, and for every third person 

that receives it, you will be paid $241.00. Within two weeks, Microsoft will contact 

you for your address and then send you a check.

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490 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

Thinking Critically About New Media 

(Continued)

Bonzai Kittens 

To anyone with love and respect for life: In New York there is a Japanese who sells 

"bonsai-kittens." Sounds like fun huh? NOT! These animals are squeezed into a 

bottle. Their urine and feces are removed through probes. They feed them with a 

kind of tube. They feed them chemicals to keep their bones soft and flexible so the 

kittens grow into the shape of the bottle. The animals will stay there . . . as long as 

they live. They can't walk or move or wash themselves. Bonsai-kittens are becoming 

a fashion in New York and Asia. See this horror at: http://www.bonsaikitten.com 

Please sign this email in protest against these tortures. If you receive an email with 

over 500 names, please send a copy to: [email protected]. From there this 

protest will be sent to USA and Mexican animd cooking healthful foods very relaxing and rewarding. I like being alone 

in my house baking bread; there is something very comforting about the aroma. Most 

of all I like to experiment with different ways to prepare foods, because the ideas are 

my own. Even when an effort is less than successful, I find pleasure in the knowledge 

that I gained from the experience. I discovered recently, for example, that eggplant is 

terrible in soup! Making mistakes seems to be a natural way to increase creativity, and 

I now firmly believe that people who say that they do not like vegetables simply have 

not been properly introduced to them! 

As any parent knows, children have an abundance of energy to spend, and toys or 

television does not always meet their needs. In response, I create activities to stimulate

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Living Creatively 27

their creativity and preserve my sanity. For example, I involve them in the process of 

cooking, giving them the skin from peeled vegetables and a pot so they can make their 

own "soup." Using catalogs, we cut out pictures of furniture, rugs, and curtains, and 

they paste them onto cartons to create their own interior decors: vibrant living rooms, 

plush bedrooms, colorful family rooms. I make beautiful boats from aluminum foil, 

and my children spend hours in the bathtub playing with them. We "go bowling" 

with empty soda cans and a ball, and they star in "track meets" by running an obstacle 

course we set up. When it comes to raising children, creativity is a way of survival! 

After quitting the government agency I was working at because of too much 

bureaucracy, I was hired as a carpenter at a construction site, although I had little 

knowledge of this profession. I learned to handle a hammer and other tools by 

watching other coworkers, and within a matter of weeks I was skilled enough to 

organize my own group of workers for projects. Most of my fellow workers used the 

old-fashioned method of construction carpentry, building panels with inefficient 

and poorly made bracings. I redesigned the panels in order to save construction 

time and materials. My supervisor and site engineer were thrilled with my creative 

ideas, and I was assigned progressively more challenging projects, including the 

construction of an office building that was completed in record time.

Thinking Activity 1.6 

DESCRIBING A CREATIVE AREA 

1. Describe a creative area of your life in which you are able to express your 

unique personality and talents. Be specific and give examples. 

2. Analyze your creative area by answering the following questions: 

· Whal protection organizations.

Missing Child Picture 

I am asking you all, begging you to please forward this email onto anyone and 

everyone you know, PLEASE. My 9 year old girl, Penny Brown, is missing. She has been 

missing for now two weeks. It is still not too late. Please help us. If anyone anywhere 

knows anything, sees anything, please contact me at [email protected] I 

am including a picture of her. All prayers are appreciated!! In only takes 2 seconds 

to forward this on, if it was your child, you would want all the help you could get. 

Please. Thank you for your kindness, hopefully you can help us.

Virus Warning 

Just to let you know a new virus was started in New York last night. This virus acts 

in the following manner: It sends itself automatically to all contacts on your list with 

the title "A Virtual Card for You." As soon as the supposed virtual card is opened, 

the computer freezes so that the user has to reboot. When the ctrlaltdel keys 

or the reset button are pressed, the virus destroys Sector Zero, thus permanently 

destroying the hard disk. Yesterday in just a few hours this virus caused panic in New 

York, according to news broadcast by CNN www.cnn.com. This alert was received by 

an employee of Microsoft itself. So don't open any mails with subject "A Virtual Card 

for You." As soon as you get the mail, delete it. Please pass on this email to all your 

friends. Forward this to everyone in your address book. I would rather receive this 

25 times than not at all.

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Fallacies of Relevance 491

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

It's a Jungle Out There! 

And there are many predators roaming around, eager to influence your thoughts and 

choices, often with the goal of separating you from your money. How does one com- 

bat these "hoax sites"? Hoax-busting websites like this one can help, but in the final 

analysis, it's your ability to think critically that will determine your success. 

Courtesy of snopes.com

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Editorial review has deemed that any y do you feel that this activity is creative? Give examples. 

· How would you describe the experience of being engaged in this activity? 

Where do your creative ideas come from? How do they develop? 

· What strategies do you use to increase your creativity? What obstacles block 

your creative efforts? How do you try to overcome these blocks?

BECOMING MORE CREATIVE 

Although we each have nearly limitless potential to live creatively, most people use 

only a small percentage of their creative gifts. In fact, there is research to suggest that 

people typically achieve their highest creative point as young children, after which 

there is a long, steady decline into progressive uncreativity. Why? Well, to begin 

with, young children are immersed in the excitement of exploration and discov- 

ery. They are eager to try out new things, act on their impulses, and make unusual 

connections between disparate ideas. They are not afraid to take risks in trying out 

untested solutions, and they are not compelled to identify the socially acceptable 

"correct answer." Children are willing to play with ideas, creating improbable sce- 

narios and imaginative ways of thinking without fear of being ridiculed.

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28 Chapter 1 Thinking

All of this tends to change as we get older. The weight of "reality" begins to 

smother our imagination, and we increasingly focus our attention on the nuts 

and bolts of living rather than on playing with possibilities. The social pressure to 

conform to group expectations increases dramatically. Whether the group is our 

friends, classmates, or fellow employees, there are clearly defined "rules" for dress- 

ing, behaving, speaking, and thinking. When we deviate from these rules, we risk 

social disapproval, rejection, or ridicule. Most groups have little tolerance for indi- 

viduals who want to think independently and creatively. As we become older, we 

also become more reluctant to pursue untested courses of action because we become 

increasingly afraid of failure. Pursuing creativity inevitably involves failure because 

we are trying to break out of established ruts and go beyond traditional methods. 

For example, going beyond the safety of a proven recipe to create an innovative 

dish may involve some disasters, but it's the only way to create something genuinely 

unique. The history of creative discoveries is littered with failures, a fact we tend to 

forget when we are debating whether we should risk an untested idea. Those people 

who are courageous enough to risk failure while expressing their creativesuppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

492 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 

This book has provided you with the opportunity to explore and develop 

many of your critical thinking and reasoning abilities. As you have seen, 

these abilities are complex and difficult to master. The process of becoming 

an accomplished critical thinker and effective reasoner is a challenging quest 

that requires ongoing practice and reflection. This section will present a criti- 

cal thinking/reasoning model that will help you pull together the impo rtant 

themes of this book into an integrated perspective. This model is illustrated on 

page 493. To become familiar with the model, you will be thinking through 

an important issue that confronts every human being: Are people capable of 

choosing freely?

WHAT IS MY INITIAL POINT OF VIEW? 

Reasoning always begins with a point of view. As a critical thinker, it is important 

for you to take thoughtful positions and express your views with confidence. Using 

this statement as a starting point, respond as specifically as you can: 

I believe (or don't believe) that people can choose freely because . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

I believe that people are capable of choosing freely because when I am faced with 

choosing among a number of possibilities, I really have the feeling that it is up to 

me to make the choice that I want to.

HOW CAN I DEFINE MY POINT OF VIEW MORE CLEARLY? 

After you state your initial point of view, the next step is to define the issues more 

clearly and specifically. As you have seen, the language that we use has multiple 

levels of meaning, and it is often not clear precisely what meaning(s) people are 

expressing. To avoid misunderstandings and sharpen your own thinking, it is 

essential that you clarify the key concepts as early as possible. In this case the 

central concept is "choosing freely." Respond by beginning with the following 

statement: 

From my point of view, the concept of "choosing freely" means . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

From my point of view, the concept of "choosing freely" means that when you 

are faced with a number of alternatives, you are able to make your selection based 

solely on what you decide, not on force applied by other influences.

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 493

The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning

Form a Point of View 

Initial description 

Clear definition 

Look to Examples Look to 

one side the other side

Other Point of View Other Point of View 

Reasons Reasons 

Evidence Evidence 

St Arguments ? St Arguments ? 

ro 

ng? li d Va 

ro ng? li d Va 

Relevant? Relevant? 

Look behind Build Support Look behind 

Origin Reasons Assumptions 

How did I form this Evidence What are my 

point of view? St 

ron Arguments d? unstated beliefs? 

i 

g ? Relevant? Val 

impulses 

are rewarded with unique achievements and an enriched life.

Thinking Activity 1.7 

IDENTIFYING CREATIVE BLOCKS 

Reflect on your own creative development, and describe some of the fears and pres- 

sures that inhibit your own creativity. For example, have you ever been penalized 

for trying out a new idea that didn't work out? Have you ever suffered the wrath of 

the group for daring to be different and violating the group's unspoken rules? Do 

you feel that your life is so filled with responsibilities and the demands of reality 

that you don't have time to be creative? 

Although the forces that discourage us from being creative are powerful, they 

can nevertheless be overcome with the right approaches. We are going to explore 

four productive strategies: 

· Understand and trust the creative process. 

· Eliminate the "Voice of Criticism." 

· Establish a creative environment. 

· Make creativity a priority. 

Understand and Trust the Creative Process Discovering your creative talents 

requires that you understand how the creative process operates and then have 

confidence in the results it produces. There are no fixed procedures or formulas for 

generating creative ideas because creative ideas by definition go beyond established 

ways of thinking to the unknown and the innovative. As the ancient Greek philoso- 

pher Heraclitus once said, "You must expect the unexpected, because it cannot be 

found by search or trail."

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Living Creatively 29

Although there is no fixed path to creative ideas, there are activities you can pur- 

sue that make the birth of creative ideas possible. In this respect, generating creative 

ideas is similar to gardening. You need to prepare the soil; plant the seeds; ensure 

proper water, light, and food; and then be patient until the ideas begin to sprout. 

Here are some steps for cultivating your creative garden:

· Absorb yourself in the task: Creative ideas don't occur in a vacuum. They 

emerge after a great deal of work, study, and practice. For example, if you want to 

come up with creative ideas in the kitchen, you need to become knowledgeable 

about the art of cooking. The more knowledgeable you are, t Inference

Conclusion 

Decision 

Solution 

Prediction 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

Consequences 

What will happen if 

the conclusion 

is adopted? A modified version of a schema originally 

designed by Ralph H. Johnson.

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494 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

WHAT IS AN EXAMPLE OF MY POINT OF VIEW? 

Once your point of view is clarified, it's useful to provide an example that illus- 

trates your meaning. As you saw in Chapter 7, the process of forming and defining 

concepts involves the process of generalizing (identifying general qualities) and the 

process of interpreting (locating specific examples). Respond to the issue we have 

been considering by beginning with the following statement: 

An example of a free choice I made (or was unable to make) is . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

An example of a free choice I made was deciding what area to major in. There are 

a number of career directions I could have chosen to go out with, but I chose my 

major entirely on my own, without being forced by other influences.

WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF MY POINT OF VIEW? 

To fully understand and critically evaluate your point of view, it's important to 

review its history. How did this point of view develop? Have you always held this 

view, or did it develop over time? This sort of analysis will help you understand how 

your perceiving "lenses" regarding this issue were formed. Respond to the issue of 

free choice by beginning with the following statement: 

I formed my belief regarding free choice . . . 

he better prepared 

you are to create valuable and innovative dishes. Similarly, if you are trying 

to develop a creative perspective for a research paper in college, you need to 

immerse yourself in the subject, developing an in-depth understanding of the 

central concepts and issues. Absorbing yourself in the task "prepares the soil" for 

your creative ideas. 

· Allow time for ideas to incubate: After absorbing yourself in the task or problem, 

the next stage in the creative process is to stop working on the task or problem. 

Even when your conscious mind has stopped actively working on the task, the 

unconscious dimension of your mind continues working--processing, orga- 

nizing, and ultimately generating innovative ideas and solutions. This process 

is known as incubation because it mirrors the process in which baby chicks 

gradually evolve inside the egg until the moment comes when they break out 

through the shell. In the same way, your creative mind is at work while you are 

going about your business until the moment of illumination, when the incubat- 

ing idea finally erupts to the surface of your conscious mind. People report that 

these illuminating moments--when their mental light bulbs go on--often occur 

when they are engaged in activities completely unrelated to the task. One of the 

most famous cases was that of the Greek thinker Archimedes, whose moment of 

illumination came while he was taking a bath, causing him to run naked through 

the streets of Athens shouting "Eureka" ("I have found it"). 

· Seize on the ideas when they emerge and follow them through: Generating cre- 

ative ideas is of little use unless you recognize them when they appear and then 

act on them. Too often people don't pay much attention to these ideas when they 

occur, or they dismiss them as too impractical. You must have confidence in the 

ideas you create, even if they seem wacky or far-out. Many of the most valu- 

able inventions in our history started as improbable ideas, ridiculed by popular 

wisdom. For example, the idea of Velcro started with burrs covering the pants 

of the inventor as he walked through a field, and Post-it Notes resulted from the 

accidental invention of an adhesive that was weaker than normal. In other words, 

thinking effectively means thinking creatively and thinking critically. After you 

use your creative thinking abilities to generate innovative ideas, you then must 

employ your critical thinking abilities to evaluate and refine the ideas and design 

a practical plan for implementing them.

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30 Chapter 1 Thinking

Eliminate the "Voice of Criticism" The biggest threat to our creativity lies within 

ourselves, the negative "Voice of Criticism" (VOC). This VOC can undermine 

your confidence in every area of your life, including your creative activities, with 

statements like:

This is a stupid idea and no one will like it. 

Even if I could pull this idea off, it probably won't amount to much. 

Although I was successful the last time I tried something like this, I was lucky 

and I won't be able to do it again. 

These statements, and countless others like them, have the ongoing effect of making 

us doubt ourselves and the quality of our creative thinking. As we lose confidence, 

we become more timid, more reluctant to follow through on ideas and present them 

to others. After a while our cumulative insecurity discourages us from even generat- 

ing ideas in the first place, and we end up simply conforming to established ways of 

thinking and the expectations of others. And in so doing we surrender an important 

part of ourselves, the vital and dynamic creative core of our personality that defines 

our unique perspective on the world. 

Where do these negative voices come from? Often they originate in the 

negative judgments we experienced while growing up, destructive criticisms 

that become internalized as a part of ourselves. In the same way that praising 

children helps make them feel confident and secure, consistently criticizing 

them does the opposite. Although parents, teachers, and acquaintances often 

don't intend these negative consequences with their critical judgments and lack 

of positive praise, the unfortunate result is still the same: a "Voice of Criticism" 

that keeps hammering away at the value of ourselves, our ideas, and our cre- 

ations. As a teacher, I see this VOC evident when students present their creative 

projects to the class with apologies like "This isn't very good, and it probably 

doesn't make sense." 

How do we eliminate this unwelcome and destructive voice within ourselves? 

There are a number of effective strategies you can use, although you should be 

aware that the fight, while worth the effort, will not be easy.

· Become aware of the VOC: You have probably been listening to the negative 

messages of the VOC for so long that you may not even be consciously aware of 

it. To conquer the VOC, you need to first recognize when it speaks. In addition, 

it is helpful to analyze the negative messages, try to figure out how and why they 

developed, and then create strategies to overcome them. A good strategy is to 

keep a VOC journal, described in Thinking Activity 1.8. 

· Restate the judgment in Here is a sample response: 

I formed my belief regarding free choice when I was in high school. I used to 

believe that everything happened because it had to, because it was determined. 

Then when I was in high school, I got involved with the "wrong crowd" and 

developed some bad habits. I stopped doing schoolwork and even stopped 

attending most classes. I was on the brink of failing when I suddenly came to 

my senses and said to myself, "This isn't what I want for my life." Through sheer 

willpower, I turned everything around. I changed my friends, improved my hab- 

its, and ultimately graduated with flying colors. From that time on, I knew that I 

had the power of free choice and that it was up to me to make the right choices.

WHAT ARE MY ASSUMPTIONS? 

Assumptions are beliefs, often unstated, that underlie your point of view. Many dis- 

putes occur and remain unresolved because the people involved do not recognize or 

express their assumptions. For example, in the very emotional debate over abortion, 

when people who are opposed to abortion call their opponents "murderers," they 

are assuming the fetus, at any stage of development from the fertilized egg onward, 

is a "human life" since murder refers to the taking of a human life. When people in 

favor of abortion call their opponents "moral fascists," they are assuming that anti- 

abortionists are merely interested in imposing their narrow moral views on others. 

Thus, it's important for all parties to identify clearly the assumptions that form 

the foundation of their points of view. They may still end up disagreeing, but at least

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 495

they will know what they are arguing about. Thinking about the issue that we have 

been exploring, respond by beginning with the following statement: 

When I say that I believe (or don't believe) in free choice, I am assuming . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

When I say that I believe in free choice, I am assuming that people are often pre- 

sented with different alternatives to choose from, and I am also assuming that they 

are able to select freely any of these alternatives independent of any influences.

WHAT ARE THE REASONS, EVIDENCE, AND ARGUMENTS 

THAT SUPPORT MY POINT OF VIEW? 

a more accurate or constructive way: Sometimes there 

is an element of truth in our self-judgments, but we have blown the reality out of 

proportion. For example, if you fail a test, your VOC may translate this as "I'm a 

failure." Or if you ask someone for a date and get turned down, your VOC may 

conclude "I'm a social misfit with emotional bad breath!" In these instances, you

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Living Creatively 31

need to translate the reality accurately: "I failed this test--I wonder what went 

wrong and how I can improve my performance in the future," and "This person 

turned me down for a date--I guess I'm not his or her type, or maybe he or she 

just doesn't know me well enough." 

· Get tough with the VOC: You can't be a coward if you hope to overcome the 

VOC. Instead, you have to be strong and determined, telling yourself as soon 

as the VOC appears, "I'm throwing you out and not letting you back in!" This 

attack might feel peculiar at first, but it will soon become an automatic response 

when those negative judgments appear. Don't give in to the judgments, even a 

little bit, by saying, "Well, maybe I'm just a little bit of a jerk." Get rid of the 

VOC entirely, and good riddance to it! 

· Create positive voices and visualizations: The best way to destroy the VOC 

for good is to replace it with positive encouragements. As soon as you have 

stomped on the judgment "I'm a jerk," you should replace it with "I'm an intel- 

ligent, valuable person with many positive qualities and talents." Similarly, 

you should make extensive use of positive visualization, by "seeing" yourself 

performing well on your examinations, being entertaining and insightful with 

other people, and succeeding gloriously in the sport or dramatic production in 

which you are involved. If you make the effort to create these positive voices 

and images, they will eventually become a natural part of your thinking. And 

since positive thinking leads to positive results, your efforts will become self- 

fulfilling prophecies. 

· Use other people for independent confirmation: The negative judgments 

coming from the VOC are usually irrational, but until they are dragged out 

into the light of day for examination, they can be very powerful. Sharing our 

VOC with others we trust is an effective strategy because they can provide an 

objective perspective that reveals to us the irrationality and destructiveness 

of these negative judgments. This sort of "reality testing" strips the judg- 

ments of their power, a process that is enhanced by the positive support of 

concerned friends with whom we have developed relationship Everybody has opinions. What distinguishes informed opinions from uninformed 

opinions is the quality of the reasons, evidence, and arguments that support the opin- 

ions. Respond to the issue of free choice by beginning with the following statement: 

There are several reasons, pieces of evidence, and arguments that support my 

belief (or disbelief) in free choice. First, . . . Second, . . . Third, . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

There are several reasons, pieces of evidence, and arguments that support my belief 

in free choice. First, I have a very strong and convincing personal intuition when I 

am making choices that my choices are free. Second, freedom is tied to responsibil- 

ity. If people make free choices, then they are responsible for the consequences of 

their choices. Since we often hold people responsible, that means we believe that 

their choices are free. Third, if people are not free, and all of their choices are deter- 

mined by external forces, then life would have little purpose and there would be no 

point in trying to improve ourselves. But we do believe that life has purpose, and we 

do try to improve ourselves, suggesting that we also believe that our choices are free.

WHAT ARE OTHER POINTS OF VIEW ON THIS ISSUE? 

One of the hallmarks of critical thinkers is that they strive to view situations from 

perspectives other than their own, to "think empathically" within other viewpoints, 

particularly those of people who disagree with their own. If we stay entrenched in our 

own narrow ways of viewing the world, the development of our minds will be severely 

limited. This is the only way to achieve a deep and full understanding of life's complex- 

ities. In working to understand other points of view, we need to identify the reasons, 

evidence, and arguments that have brought people to these conclusions. Respond to 

the issue we have been analyzing by beginning with the following statement: 

A second point of view on this issue might be . . . A third point of view on this 

issue might be . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

A second point of view on this issue might be that many of our choices are condi- 

tioned by experiences that we have had in ways that we are not even aware of. For

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496 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

example, you might choose a career because of someone you admire or because of 

the expectations of others, although you may be unaware of these influences on 

your decision. Or you might choose to date someone because he or she reminds 

you of someone from your past, although you believe you are making a totally 

free decision. A third point of view on this issue might be that our choices are 

influenced by people around us, although we may not be fully aware of it. For 

example, we may go along with a group decision of our friends, mistakenly think- 

ing that we are making an independent choice.

WHAT IS MY CONCLUSION, DECISION, SOLUTION, 

OR PREDICTION? 

The ultimate purpose of reasoning is to reach an informed and successful con- 

clusion, decision, solution, or prediction. Chapters 1 and 3 described reasoning 

approaches for making decisions and solving problems; Chapters 2 and 5 analyzed 

reaching conclusions; Chapter 9 explored the inferences we use to make predic- 

tions. With respect to the sample issue we have been considering--determining 

whether we can make free choices--the goal is to achieve a thoughtful conclusion. 

This is a complex process of analysis and synthesis in which we consider all points 

of view; evaluate the supporting reasons, evidence, and arguments; and then con- 

struct our most informed conclusion. Respond to our sample issue by using the 

following statement as a starting point: 

After examining different points of view and critically evaluating the reasons, 

evidence, and arguments that support the various perspectives, my conclusion 

about free choice is . . . 

Here is a sample response: 

After examining different points of view and critically evaluating the reasons, evi- 

dence, and arguments that support the various perspectives, my conclusion about 

free choice is that we are capable of making free choices but that our freedom is 

sometimes limited. For example, many of our actions are conditioned by our past 

experience, and we are often influenced by other people without being aware of it. 

In order to make free choices, we need to become aware of these influences and 

then decide what course of action we want to choose. As long as we are unaware 

of these influences, they can limit our ability to make free, independent choices.

WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES? 

The final step in the reasoning process is to determine the consequences of our con- 

clusion, decision, solution, or prediction. The consequences refer to what is likely 

to happen if our conclusion is adopted. Looking ahead in this fashion is helpful 

not simply for anticipating the future but also for evaluating the present. Identify 

the consequences of your conclusion regarding free choice by beginning with the 

following statement: 

The consequences of believing (or disbelieving) in free choice are . . .

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reses over a period 

of time.

Thinking Activity 1.8 

COMBATING THE "VOICE OF CRITICISM" 

1. Take a small notebook or pad with you one day, and record every self- 

defeating criticism that you make about yourself. At the end of the day 

classify your self-criticisms by category. For example: negative self-criticism 

about your physical appearance, your popularity with others, your 

academic ability. 

2. Analyze the self-criticisms in each of the categories and try to determine 

where they came from and how they developed.

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32 Chapter 1 Thinking

3. Use the strategies described in this section, and others of your own creation, 

to start fighting these self-criticisms when they occur.

Establish a Creative Environment An important part of eliminating the negative 

voices in our minds is to establish environments in which our creative resources 

can flourish. This means finding or developing physical environments conducive 

to creative expression as well as supportive social environments. Sometimes 

working with other people is stimulating and energizing to our creative juices; 

at other times we require a private place where we can work without distraction. 

For example, I have a specific location in which I do much of my writing: sitting 

at my desk, with a calm, pleasing view of the Hudson River, music on the iPod, a 

cold drink, and a supply of roasted almonds and Jelly Bellies. I'm ready for cre- 

ativity to strike me, although I sometimes have to wait for some time! Different 

environments work for different people: You have to find the environment(s) best 

suited to your own creative process and then make a special effort to do your 

work there. 

The people in our lives who form our social environment play an even more 

influential role in encouraging or inhibiting our creative process. When we are 

surrounded by people who are positive and supportive, they increase our confi- 

dence and encourage us to take the risk to express our creative vision. They can 

stimulate our creativity by providing us with fresh ideas and new perspectives. 

By engaging in brainstorming (described on page 109), they can work with us to 

generate ideas and then later help us figure out how to refine and implement the 

most valuable ones. 

However, when the people around us tend to be negative, critical, or belit- 

tling, then the opposite happens: We lose confidence and are reluctant to express 

ourselves creatively. Eventually, we begin to internalize these negative criticisms, 

incorporating them into our own VOC. When this occurs, we have the choice of 

telling people that we will not tolerate this sort of destructive behavior or, if they 

can't improve their behavior, moving them out of our lives. Of course, sometimes 

this is difficult because we work with them or they are related to us. In this case we 

have to work at diminishing their negative influence and spending more time with 

those who support us.

Make Creativity a Priority Having diminished the voice of negative judgment in 

your mind, established a creative environment, and committed yourself to trusting 

your creative gifts, you are now in a position to live more creatively. How do you 

actually do this? Start small. Identify some habitual patterns in your life and break 

out of them. Choose new experiences whenever possible--for example, order- 

ing unfamiliar items on a menu or getting to know people outside your circle of 

friends--and strive to develop fresh perspectives in your life. Resist falling back into 

the ruts you were previously in by remembering that living things are supposed to 

be continually growing, changing, and evolving, not acting in repetitive patterns 

like machines.

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Living Creatively 33

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

"You Must Expect the Unexpected"--Heraclitus

Can you think of a time in which a creative inspiration enabled you to see a 

solution to a problem that no one else could see? What can you do to increase 

these creative break- 

throughs in your life? 

What strategies can 

you use to "expect the 

unexpected"? 

y Skoglund 

Radioactive Cats © 1980 Sandy g

Thinking Activity 1.9 

BECOMING MORE CREATIVE 

Select an area of your life in which you would like to be more creative. It can be 

in school, on your job, an activity you enjoy, or in your relationship with some- 

one. Make a special effort to inject a fresh perspective and new ideas into this 

area, and keep a journal recording your efforts and their results. Be sure to allow 

yourself sufficient time to break out of your ruts and establish new patterns of 

thinking, feeling, and behaving. Focus on your creative antennae as you "expect 

the unexpected," and pounce on new ideas when they emerge from the depths of 

your creative resource.

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34 Chapter 1 Thinking

Thinking Critically About New Media 

Creative Applications 

The world is changing at warp speed, and many of these changes have to do with what 

is popularly termed the "new media," forms of information and communication tech- 

nologies that were made possible by the creation of the Internet, wireless phones, and 

text communication devices. Virtually every aspect of our lives has been affected by 

the development and use of these technologies, including the way we think and write, 

communicate with one another, research and gather information, develop and sustain 

relationships, create our sense of self-identity, and construct "virtual" realities that have 

complex connections to the space-and-time world in which we go about the business of 

living. For example, it used to be that communicating with someone else involved speak- 

ing in person, writing a letter, or talking on a landline telephone. We can now speak 

by cell phone directly to most anyone on the planet from wherever we are whenever 

we want. What's more, we can use the technologies of email, Instant Messaging, text 

messaging, or twittering to stay socially connected to a large number of people on a 

continual basis. And through the development of social networking sites like Facebook, 

YouTube, and LinkedIn, people have been able to create "virtual communities." These 

virtual communities transcend geographical boundaries, and as the new media critic and 

writer Howard Rheingold explains, these globalized societies are self-defined networks, 

which resemble what we do in real life. "People in virtual communities use words on 

screens to exchange pleasantries and argue, engage in intellectual discourse, conduct 

commerce, make plans, brainstorm, gossip, feud, fall in love, create a little high art and 

a lot of idle talk."

However, accompanying this new universe of possibilities provided by new media 

are many risks and challenges that, more than ever, make it necessary to develop and 

rved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 497

Here is a sample response: 

The consequences of believing in free choice are taking increasing personal 

responsibility and showing people how to increase their freedom. The first con- 

sequence is that if people are able to make free choices, then they are responsible 

for the results of their choices. They can't blame other people, bad luck, or events 

"beyond their control." They have to accept responsibility. The second conse- 

quence is that, although our freedom can be limited by influences of which we 

are unaware, we can increase our freedom by becoming aware of these influences 

and then deciding what we want to do. If people are not able to make free choices, 

then they are not responsible for what they do, nor are they able to increase their 

freedom. This could lead people to adopt an attitude of resignation and apathy.

Thinking Activity 11.8 

APPLYING THE "GUIDE TO REASONING" 

Identify an important issue in which you are interested, and apply "The Critical 

Thinker's Guide to Reasoning" to analyze it. 

· What is my initial point of view? 

· How can I define my point of view more clearly? 

· What is an example of my point of view? 

· What is the origin of my point of view? 

· What are my assumptions? 

· What are the reasons, evidence, and arguments that support my point of view? 

· What are other points of view on this issue? 

· What is my conclusion, decision, solution, or prediction? 

· What are the consequences?

Thinking Passages 

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT AUTHORITY 

The following reading selections demonstrate graphically the destructive effects of 

failing to think critically and suggest ways to avoid these failures.

Text not available due to copyright restrictions

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498 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

Text not available due to copyright restrictions

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reser apply our critical thinking abilities as we navigate our way through this digital universe. 

To this end, I have included a number of readings in this edition that address various 

aspects of new media, and, in addition, each chapter contains a section on "Thinking 

Critically About New Media." It's essential that we have the strategies and insight to 

make sure that these powerful new vehicles of communication are used to enhance our 

lives, not complicate and damage them.

One of the themes of this chapter has been creative thinking, and new media has 

offered an unprecedented opportunity to roam far and wide in our search for informa- 

tion that will enrich our creative endeavors. But new media also affords us the chance 

to gather many different perspectives on our projects, with others' ideas serving as 

catalysts to our creative imaginations. For example, the columnist David Pogue suggests 

that companies should use what he calls "crowdsourcing" to generate new ideas. To try 

this out, he asked his Twitter followers for their best tech-product enhancement ideas.

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Living Creatively 35

He reports that "They responded wittily, passionately--and immediately (this is Twitter, 

after all)". Ideas that were tweeted back included: 

· Cell phone batteries that recharge through kinetic motion as you walk around 

· Technology that lets you use your hand as a TV remote control (the TV recognizes 

your gestures) 

· A camera warning that responds to voice commands and also tells you if your thumb 

is in the way of the lens 

· Laptop computers with built-in solar panels for charging batteries 

· Music players that can be shifted to "Karaoke mode"

The column with its complete list of creative ideas can be found on the 

Thinking Critically website: (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/10/technology/ 

personaltech/10pogue.html?emceta1)

Thinking Activity 1.10 

CREATIVE "CROWDSOURCING" 

Following up on David Pogue's ingenious use of "crowdsourcing" to generate 

creative ideas, try some crowdsourcing of your own to generate innovative ideas to 

improve the quality of your life. Send several queries out to your network of friends 

asking them for their creative ideas, and then compile these into a master list that 

you share with everyone (be sure to give credit!). Here are some possible topics: 

· Ideas for organizing the many activities in your life more efficiently 

· Ideas for making studying more entertaining and effective 

· Ideas for having a party with a totally unique theme

Thinking Passage 

NURTURING CREATIVITY 

The process of creating yourself through your choices is a lifelong one that involves 

all the creative and critical thinking abilities that we will be exploring in this book. 

The processes of creative thinking and critical thinking are related to one another in

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36 Chapter 1 Thinking

complex, interactive ways. We use the creative thinking process to develop ideas that 

are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration, and we use the critical think- 

ing process to analyze, evaluate, and refine these ideas. Creative thinking and critical 

thinking work as partners, enabling us to lead fulfilling lives. The first of the follow- 

ing articles, "Original Spin" by Lesley Dormen and Peter Edidin, provides a useful 

introduction to creative thinking and suggests strategies for increasing your creative 

abilities. In the second article, "Revenge of the Right Brain," the author Daniel Pink 

contends that the creative thinking abilities associated with the right half of our 

brains are increasingly essential to succeeding in the new "Conceptual Age." After 

reading the articles and reflecting on their ideas, answer the questions that follow.

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Find another article related to creativity--"Daydream Achiever," by Jonah Lehrer--in your 

English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com.

Original Spin 

by Lesley Dormen and Peter Edidin

Creativity, somebody once wrote, is the search for the elusive "Aha," that moment of 

insight when one sees the world, or a problem, or an idea, in a new way. Traditionally, 

whether the discovery results in a cubist painting or an improved carburetor, we have 

viewed the creative instant as serendipitous and rare--the product of genius, the prop- 

erty of the elect. 

Unfortunately, this attitude has had a number of adverse consequences. It 

encourages us to accept the myth that the creative energy society requires to 

address its own problems will never be present in sufficient supply. Beyond that, we 

have come to believe that "ordinary" people like ourselves can never be truly cre- 

ative. As John Briggs, author of Fire in the Crucible: The Alchemy of Creative Genius, 

ves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 499

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Milgram's Experiment 

In this actual photo from Milgram's obedience study, the man being strapped into 

the chair for the experiment is one of Milgram's research assistants and will receive 

no shock, although the subjects in the experiment believe that they are administer- 

ing painful shocks because they are instructed to by the "experimenter." Why do you 

think the majority of people went along with these instructions? What do you think 

the research assistant thought of the experiment? In his place, would you have been 

surprised by the findings? 

From the film Obedience © 1968 by Stanley Milgram © renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram and distributed by 

Penn State Media Sales

It is clear to people who are not in the experiment what they should do. The 

question is, What features of the experimental situation make this clear issue opaque to 

subjects? Our aim is to suggest some reasons for such a failure of thinking and action 

and to suggest ways that people might be trained to avoid such failures--not only in 

the experiment, of course, but in our practical, moral lives as well. What are some of 

the sources of the failure?

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500 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

The experimental conditions involve entrapment, and gradual entrapment affects critical 

thought. One important feature inducing obedience is the gradual escalation of the shock. 

Although subjects in the end administered 450-volt shocks, which is clearly beyond the 

limits of common morality and, indeed, common sense, they began by administering 

15-volt shocks, which is neither. Not only did they begin with an innocuous shock, 

but it increased in innocuous steps of 15 volts. This gradualness clouds clear thinking: 

we are prepared by our moral training to expect moral problems to present themselves 

categorically, with good and evil clearly distinguished. But here they were not. By 

administering the first shock, subjects did two things at once--one salient, the other 

implicit. They administered a trivial shock, a morally untroublesome act, and they in that 

same act committed themselves to a policy and procedure which ended in clear evil. 

Surely in everyday life, becoming entrapped by gradual increases in commitment is 

among the most common ways for us to find ourselves engaging in immoral acts, not to 

mention simple folly. The corrective cannot be, of course, refusing to begin on any path 

which might lead to immorality, but rather to foresee where paths are likely to lead, and 

to arrange for ourselves points beyond which we will not go. One suspects that had the 

subjects committed themselves--publicly--to some shock level they would not exceed, 

they would not have found themselves pushing the 450-volt lever. We cannot expect to 

lead, or expect our young to lead, lives without walking on slopes: our only hope is to 

reduce their slipperiness. 

Distance makes obedience easier. Another force sustaining obedience was the 

distance between the victim and the subject. Indeed, in one condition of the 

experiment, subjects were moved physically closer to the victim; in one condition 

they had to hold his hand on the shock plate (through Mylar insulation to protect the 

teachers from shock). Here twelve out of forty subjects continued to the end, roughly 

half the number that did so when the subjects were farther from their victim. 

Being closer to the victim did not have its effect by making subjects think more 

critically or by giving them more information. Rather it intensified their discomfort at 

the victim's pain. Still, being face to face with someone they were hurting probably 

caused them at least to focus on their victim, which might well be a first step in their 

taking seriously the pain they were causing him. 

Both the experimenter's presence and the objective requirements of the situation 

influenced decisions to obey authority. The experimenter's presence is crucial to the 

subjects' obedience. In one version of the experiment he issued his commands at a 

distance, over the phone, and obedience was significantly reduced--to nine out of forty 

cases. The experimenter, then, exerts powerful social influence over the subjects. 

One way to think about the experimenter's influence is to suppose that subjects 

uncritically cede control of their behavior to him. But this is too simple. We suggest 

that if the experimenter were to have told the subjects, for example, to shine his shoes, 

every subject would have refused. They would have refused because shining shoes is not 

a sensible command within the experimental context. Thus, the experimenter's ability to 

confuse and control subjects follows from his issuing commands which make sense given 

the ostensible purpose of the experiment; he was a guide, for them, to the experiment's 

objective requirements. 

This interpretation of the experimenter's role is reinforced by details of his behavior. 

said, "The way we talk about creativity tends to reinforce the notion that it is some 

kind of arbitrary gift. It's amazing the way 'not having it' becomes wedded to peo- 

ple's self-image. They invariably work up a whole series of rationalizations about why 

they 'aren't creative,' as if they were damaged goods of some kind." Today, however, 

researchers are looking at creativity, not as an advantage of the human elite, but as 

a basic human endowment. As Ruth Richards, a psychiatrist and creativity researcher 

at McLean Hospital in Belmont, MA, says, "You were being creative when you learned 

how to walk. And if you are looking for something in the fridge, you're being cre- 

ative because you have to figure out for yourself where it is." Creativity, in Richards' 

view, is simply fundamental to getting about in the world. It is "our ability to adapt 

to change. It is the very essence of human survival."

Source: "Original Spin," by Lesley Dormen and Peter Edidin, Psychology Today, July/August 1989. 

Reprinted with permission from Psychology Today Magazine, (Copyright © 1989 Sussex Publishers, LLC).

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Living Creatively 37

In an age of rampant social and technological change, such an adaptive capability 

becomes yet more crucial to the individual's effort to maintain balance in a constantly 

shifting environment. "People need to recognize that what Alvin Toffler called future 

shock is our daily reality," says Ellen McGrath, a clinical psychologist who teaches cre- 

ativity courses at New York University. "Instability is an intrinsic part of our lives, and 

to deal with it every one of us will need to find new, creative solutions to the chal- 

lenges of everyday life." 

... 

But can you really become more creative? If the word creative smacks too much of 

Picasso at his canvas, then rephrase the question in a less intimidating way: Do you 

believe you could deal with the challenges of life in a more effective, inventive, and ful- 

filling manner? If the answer is yes, then the question becomes, "What's stopping you?"

Defining Yourself as a Creative Person 

People often hesitate to recognize the breakthroughs in their own lives as creative. But 

who has not felt the elation and surprise that come with the sudden, seemingly inexpli- 

cable discovery of a solution to a stubborn problem? In that instant, in "going beyond 

the information given," as psychologist Jerome Bruner has said, to a solution that was 

the product of your own mi For example, his language and demeanor were cold--bureaucratic rather than emotional

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 501

or personal. The subjects were led to see his commands to them as his dispassionate 

interpretations of something beyond them all: the requirements of the experiment. 

Embarrassment plays a key role in decisions to obey authority. The experimenter 

entrapped subjects in another way. Subjects could not get out of the experiment 

without having to explain and justify their abandoning their duty to the experiment and 

to him. And how were they to do this? 

Some subjects attempted to justify their leaving by claiming that they could 

not bear to go on, but such appeals to "personal reasons" were rebutted by the 

experimenter's reminding them of their duty to stay. If the subjects could not escape 

the experiment by such claims, then how could they escape? They could fully escape 

his power only by confronting him on moral grounds. It is worth noting that this is 

something that virtually none of the hundreds of subjects who took part in one 

condition or another fully did. Failing to address the experimenter in moral terms, even 

"disobedient" subjects just passively resisted; they stayed in their seats refusing to 

continue until the experimenter declared the experiment over. They did not do things 

we might expect them to: leave, tell the experimenter off, release the victim from his 

seat, and so on. Why did even the disobedient subjects not confront the experimenter? 

One reason seems too trivial to mention: confronting the experimenter would be 

embarrassing. This trivial fact may have much to do with the subjects' obedience. To 

confront the experimenter directly, on moral grounds, would be to disrupt in a profound 

way implicit expectations that grounded this particular, and indeed most, social 

interaction: namely, that the subject and experimenter would behave as competent 

moral actors. Questioning these expectations is on some accounts, at least, the source 

of embarrassment. 

Subjects in Milgram's experiment probably did not realize that it was in part 

embarrassment that [was] keeping them in line. Had they realized that--had they 

realized that they were torturing someone to spare themselves embarrassment--they 

might well have chosen to withstand the embarrassment to secure the victim's release. 

But rather we suspect that subjects experience their anticipation of embarrassment as a 

nameless force, a distressing emotion they were not able to articulate. Thus the subjects 

found themselves unable to confront the experimenter on moral grounds and unable to 

comprehend why they could not confront the experimenter. 

Emotional states affect critical thought. Obviously the emotions the subjects 

experienced because of the embarrassment they were avoiding and the discnd, you were expressing your creativity. 

This impulse to "go beyond" to a new idea is not the preserve of genius, 

stresses David Henry Feldman, a developmental psychologist at Tufts University 

and the author of Nature's Gambit, a study of child prodigies. "Not everybody can 

be Beethoven," he says, "but it is true that all humans, by virtue of being dream- 

ers and fantasizers, have a tendency to take liberties with the world as it exists. 

Humans are always transforming their inner and outer worlds. It's what I call the 

'transformational imperative.'" 

The desire to play with reality, however, is highly responsive to social control, and 

many of us are taught early on to repress the impulse. As Mark Runco, associate profes- 

sor of psychology at California State University at Fullerton and the founder of the new 

Creativity Research Journal, says, "We put children in groups and make them sit in desks 

and raise their hands before they talk. We put all the emphasis on conformity and order, 

then we wonder why they aren't being spontaneous and creative." 

Adults too are expected to conform in any number of ways and in a variety of 

settings. Conformity, after all, creates a sense of order and offers the reassurance of 

the familiar. But to free one's natural creative impulses, it is necessary, to some extent, 

to resist the pressure to march in step with the world. Begin small, suggests Richards. 

"Virtually nothing you do can't be done in a slightly different, slightly better way. This 

has nothing to do with so-called creative pursuits but simply with breaking with your 

own mindsets and trying an original way of doing some habitual task. Simply defer 

judgment on yourself for a little while and try something new. Remember, the essence of 

life is not getting things right, but taking risks, making mistakes, getting things wrong."

Avoiding the Myths 

David Perkins, co-director of Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, 

asks in The Mind's Best Work, "When you have it--creativity, that is--what do you 

have?" The very impalpability of the subject means that often creativity can be known

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38 Chapter 1 Thinking

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

"Express Yourself!" 

Our creative talents can be expressed in almost every area of our lives. How is the 

woman in the photo expressing herself creatively? What are some of your favorite 

activities in which you are able to express your unique personality in innovative ways? 

Jeff Greenberg/Alamy

only by its products. Indeed, the most common way the researchers define creativity is 

by saying it is whatever produces something that is: a. original; b. adaptive (i.e., useful); 

omfort 

produced by hearing the cries of the victim affected their ability to reason critically. 

We do not know much about the effects of emotion on cognition, but it is plausible 

that it has at least one effect--a focusing of attention. Subjects seem to suffer from 

what Milgram has called "Tunnel Vision": they restricted their focus to the technical 

requirements of the experimental task, for these, at least, were clear. This restriction 

of attention is both a consequence of being in an emotional state more generally, and 

it is a strategy subjects used to avoid unwanted emotional intrusions. This response 

to emotion is, no doubt, a formidable obstacle to critical thought. To reject the 

experimenter's commands, subjects had to view their situation in a perspective different 

from the technical one the experimenter offered them. But their immediate emotional 

state made it particularly difficult for them to do just that: to look at their own 

situation from a broader, moral perspective.

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502 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

How can we train individuals to avoid destructive obedience? Our analysis leads to 

the view that obedience in the Milgram experiment is not primarily a result of a failure 

of knowledge, or at least knowledge of the crucial issue of what is right or wrong to do 

in this circumstance. People do not need to be told that torturing an innocent person 

is something they should not do--even in the context of the experiment. Indeed, 

when the experimenter turns his back, most subjects are able to apply their moral 

principles and disobey. The subjects' problem instead is not knowing how to break off, 

how to make the moral response without social stickiness. If the subjects' defect is not 

primarily one of thinking correctly, then how is education, even education in critical 

thinking, to repair the defect? We have three suggestions. 

First, we must teach people how to confront authority. We should note as a corollary 

to this effort that teaching has a wide compass: we teach people how to ride bikes, 

how to play the piano, how to make a sauce. Some teaching of how to do things we 

call education: we teach students how to do long division, how to parse sentences, 

how to solve physics problems. We inculcate these skills in students not by, or not only 

by, giving them facts or even strategies to remember, but also by giving them certain 

sorts of experiences, by correcting them when they err, and so on. An analogy would be 

useful here. Subjects in the Milgram experiment suffered not so m c. meaningful to others. But because we don't understand its genesis, we're often 

blocked or intimidated by the myths that surround and distort this mercurial subject. 

One of these myths is, in Perkins's words, that creativity is "a kind of 'stuff' that 

the creative person has and uses to do creative things, never mind other factors." This 

bit of folk wisdom, that creativity is a sort of intangible psychic organ--happily present 

in some and absent in others--so annoys Perkins that he would like to abolish the 

word itself. 

Another prevalent myth about creativity is that it is restricted to those who are 

"geniuses"--that is, people with inordinately high IQs. Ironically, this has been dis- 

credited by a study begun by Stanford psychologist Lewis Terman, the man who adapted 

the original French IQ test for America. In the early 1920s, Terman had California

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Living Creatively 39

schoolteachers choose 1,528 "genius" schoolchildren (those with an IQ above 135), 

whose lives were then tracked year after year. After six decades, researchers found that 

the putative geniuses, by and large, did well in life. They entered the professions in 

large numbers and led stable, prosperous lives. But very few made notable creative con- 

tributions to society, and none did extraordinarily creative work. 

According to Dean Simonton, professor of psychology at the University of California 

at Davis and the author of Genius, Creativity and Leadership and Scientific Genius, "There 

just isn't any correlation between creativity and IQ. The average college graduate has an 

IQ of about 120, and this is high enough to write novels, do scientific research, or any 

other kind of creative work." 

A third myth, voiced eons ago by Socrates, lifts creativity out of our own lives alto- 

gether into a mystical realm that makes it all but unapproachable. In this view, the 

creative individual is a kind of oracle, the passive conduit or channel chosen by God, or 

the tribal ancestors, or the muse, to communicate sacred knowledge. 

Although there are extraordinary examples of creativity, for which the only explana- 

tion seems to be supernatural intervention (Mozart, the story goes, wrote the overture 

to Don Giovanni in only a few hours, after a virtually sleepless night and without revi- 

sion), by and large, creativity begins with a long and intensive apprenticeship. 

Psychologist Howard Gruber believes that it takes at least 10 years of immersion 

uch from a failure to 

remember that as center fielders they should catch fly balls as they did from an inability 

to do so playing under lights at night, with a great deal of wind, and when there is 

ambiguity about whether time-out has been called. To improve the players' ability to 

shag fly balls, in game conditions, we recommend practice rather than lectures, and 

the closer the circumstances of practice to the conditions of the actual game, the more 

effective the practice is likely to be. 

Good teachers from Socrates on have known that the intellect must be trained; one 

kind of training is in criticizing authority. We teachers are authorities and hence can 

provide practice. Of course, we can only do that if we remain authorities. Practice at 

criticizing us if we do not respect our own authority is of little use. We do not have 

a recipe for being an authority who at the same time encourages criticism, but we do 

know that is what is important. And sometimes we can tell when we are either not 

encouraging criticism or when we have ceased being an authority. Both are equally 

damaging. 

Practice with the Milgram situation might help too; it might help for students 

to "role play" the subjects' plight. If nothing else, doing this might bring home in a 

forcible way the embarrassment that subjects faced in confronting authority. It might 

help them develop ways of dealing with this embarrassment. Certainly, it would at least 

teach them that doing the morally right thing does not always "feel" right, comfortable, 

natural. There is no evidence about whether such experiences generalize, but perhaps 

they do. 

If they are to confront authority assertively, individuals must also be taught to 

use social pressure in the service of personal values. Much of current psychology and 

education sees thought, even critical thought, as something that goes on within 

individuals. But we know better than this. Whether it be in science, law, or the 

humanities, scholarship is and must be a public, social process. To train subjects to 

think critically is to train them to expose their thinking to others, to open themselves 

to criticism, from their peers as well as from authority. We insist on this in scholarship

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 503

because we know that individual thinking, even the best of it, is prey to distortions of 

all kinds, from mere ignorance to "bad faith." 

Further, the support of others is important in another way. We know that subjects 

who saw what they took to be two other naive subjects disobey, and thus implicitly 

criticize the action of continuing, were very likely to do so themselves. A subject's sense 

that the experimenter had the correct reading was undermined by the counter reading 

offered by the "other subjects." Public reinforcement of our beliefs can liberate us from 

illegitimate pressure. The reason for this is twofold. 

Agreement with others clarifies the cognitive issue and helps us see the morally or 

empirically right answer to questions. But it also can have another effect--a nonrational 

one. 

We have claimed that part of the pressure subjects faced in disobeying was produced 

by having to deal with the embarrassment that might emerge from confrontation. Social 

support provides a counter-pressure. Had the subjects committed themselves publicly to 

disobedience before entering the experiment then they could have countered pressures 

produced by disobedience (during the experiment) by considering the embarrassment 

of admitting to others (after the experiment) that they had obeyed. Various self-help 

groups like Alcoholics Anonymous and Weight Watchers teach individuals to manage 

social pressures to serve good ends. 

Social pressures are forces in our lives whether we concede them or not. The rational 

person, the person who would keep his action in accord with his values, must learn to 

face or avoid those pressures when they act to degrade his action, but equally important 

he ought to learn to employ the pressure of public commitment, the pressure implicit in 

making clear to others what he values, in the service of his values. 

Students should know about the social pressures that operate on them. They 

should also learn how to use those pressures to support their own values. One reason 

we teach people to think critically is so that they may take charge of their own 

creations. We do not withhold from engineers who would create buildings knowledge 

about gravity or vectors or stresses. Rather we teach them to enlist this knowledge in 

their support. 

A second area requires our attention. We need to eliminate intellectual illusions 

fostering nonintellectual obedience. These are illusions about human nature which the 

Milgram experiment renders transparent. None of these illusions is newly discovered; 

others have noticed them before. But the Milgram experiment casts them in sharp relief. 

The most pernicious of these illusions is the belief, perhaps implicit, that only evil 

people do evil things and that evil announces itself. This belief, in different guises, 

bewildered the subjects in several ways. 

First, the experimenter looks and acts like the most reasonable and rational of 

people: a person of authority in an important institution. All of this is, of course, 

irrelevant to the question of whether his commands are evil, but it does not seem so 

to subjects. The experimenter had no personally corrupt motive in ordering subjects to 

continue, for he wanted nothing more of them tha in a given domain before an eminent creator is likely to be able to make a distinctive 

mark. Einstein, for example, who is popularly thought to have doodled out the theory 

of relativity at age 26 in his spare time, was in fact compulsively engaged in thinking 

about the problem at least from the age of 16. 

Finally, many who despair of ever being creative do so because they tried once and 

failed, as though the truly creative always succeed. In fact, just the opposite is true, 

says Dean Simonton. He sees genius, in a sense, as inseparable from failure. "Great 

geniuses make tons of mistakes," he says. "They generate lots of ideas and they accept 

being wrong. They have a kind of internal fortress that allows them to fail and just keep 

going. Look at Edison. He held over 1,000 patents, but most of them are not only for- 

gotten, they weren't worth much to begin with."

Mindlessness Versus Mindfulness 

"Each of us desires to share with others our vision of the world, only most of us have 

been taught that it's wrong to do things differently or look at things differently," says 

John Briggs. "We lose confidence in ourselves and begin to look at reality only in terms 

of the categories by which society orders it." 

This is the state of routinized conformity and passive learning that Harvard professor 

of psychology Ellen Langer calls, appropriately enough, mindlessness. For it is the state 

of denying the perceptions and promptings of our own minds, our individual selves. 

Langer and her colleagues' extensive research over the past 15 years has shown that 

when we act mindlessly, we behave automatically and limit our capacity for creative 

response. Mired down in a numbing daily routine, we may virtually relinquish our capac- 

ity for independent thought and action. 

By contrast, Langer refers to a life in which we use our affective, responsive, 

perceptive faculties as "mindful." When we are mindful, her research has shown,

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40 Chapter 1 Thinking

we avoid rigid, reflexive behavior in favor of a more improvisational and intuitive 

response to life. We notice and feel the world around us and then act in accordance 

with our feelings. "Many, if not all, of the qualities that make up a mindful attitude 

are characteristic of creative people," Langer writes in her new book, Mindfulness. 

"Those who can free themselves of mindsets, open themselves to new information 

and surprise, play with perspective and context, and focus on process rather than 

outcome are likely to be creative, whether they are scientists, artists, or cooks." 

Much of Langer's research has demonstrated the vital relationship between cre- 

ativity and uncertainty, or conditionality. For instance, in one experiment, Langer 

and Alison Piper introduced a collection of objects to one group of people by saying, 

"This is a hair dryer," and "This is a dog's chew toy," and so on. Another group was 

told, "This could be a hair dryer," and "This could be a dog's chew toy." Later, the 

experimenters for both groups invented a need for an eraser, but only those people 

who had been conditionally introduced to the objects thought to use the dog's toy in 

this new way. 

The intuitive understanding that a single thing is, or could be, many things, 

depending on how you look at it, is at the heart of the attitude Langer calls mindful- 

ness. But can such an amorphous state be cultivated? Langer believes that it can, 

by consciously discarding the idea that any given moment of your day is fixed in its 

form. "I teach people to 'componentize' their lives into smaller pieces," she says. "In 

the morning, instead of mindlessly downing your orange juice, taste it. Is it what you 

want? Try something else if it isn't. When you walk to work, turn left instead of right. 

You'll notice the street you're on, the buildings and the weather. Mindfulness, like cre- 

ativity, is nothing more than a return to who you are. By minding your responses to 

the world, you will come to know yourself again. How you feel. What you want. What 

you want to do."

Creating the Right Atmosphere 

Understanding the genesis of creativity, going beyond the myths to understand your 

creative potential, and recognizing your ability to break free of old ways of thinking are 

the three initial steps to a more creative life. The fourth is finding ways to work that 

encourage personal commitment and expressiveness. 

Letting employees learn what they want to do has never been a very high priority 

in the workplace. There, the dominant regulation has always been, "Do what you are 

told." 

Today, however, economic realities are providing a new impetus for change. The 

pressure on American businesses to become more productive and innovative has made 

creative thinking a hot commodity in the business community. But innovation, business 

is now learning, is likely to be found wherever bright and eager people think they can 

find it. And some people are looking in curious places. 

Financier Wayne Silby, for example, founded the Calvert Group of Funds, which 

today manages billions of dollars in assets. Silby, whose business card at one point 

read Chief Daydreamer, occasionally retreats for inspiration to a sensory deprivation 

tank, where he floats in warm water sealed off from light n to fulfill the requirements of the 

experiment. So the experimenter was not seen as an evil man, as a man with corrupt 

desires. He was a man, like Karl Adolf Eichmann, who ordered them to do evil because 

he saw that evil as something required of him (and of them) by the requirements of the 

situation they faced together. Because we expect our morality plays to have temptation

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504 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

and illicit desire arrayed against conscience, our ability to criticize morally is subverted 

when we find evil instructions issued by someone moved by, of all things, duty. [For a 

fuller discussion of this point, see Hannah Arendt's Eichmann in Jerusalem (1965), where 

the issue is placed in the context of the Holocaust.] 

And just as the experimenter escaped the subjects' moral criticism because 

he was innocent of evil desire, the subjects escaped their own moral criticism 

because they too were free of evil intent: they did not want to hurt the victim; they 

really did not. Further, some subjects, at least, took action to relieve the victim's 

plight--many protested the experimenter's commands, many tried to give the victim 

hints about the right answers--thus further dramatizing their purity of heart. And 

because they acted out of duty rather than desire, the force of their conscience 

against their own actions was reduced. But, of course, none of this matters in the 

face of the evil done. 

The "good-heartedness" of people, their general moral quality, is something very 

important to us, something to which we, perhaps rightly, typically pay attention. But if 

we are to think critically about the morality of our own and others' acts, we must see 

through this general fact about people to assess the real moral quality of the acts they 

do or are considering doing. 

A second illusion from which the subjects suffered was a confusion about the 

notion of responsibility. Some subjects asked the experimenter who was responsible 

for the victim's plight. And the experimenter replied that he was. We, and people asked 

to predict what they would do in the experiment, see that this is nonsense. We see 

that the experimenter cannot discharge the subjects' responsibility--no more than the 

leader of a bank-robbing gang can tell his cohorts, "Don't worry. If we're caught, I'll 

take full responsibility." We are aland sound. "I went into 

the tank during a time when the government was changing money-market deposit

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Living Creatively 41

regulations, and I needed to think how to compete with banks. Floating in the tank I 

got the idea of joining them instead. We wound up creating an $800-million program. 

Often we already have answers to our problems, but we don't quiet ourselves enough to 

see the solutions bubbling just below the surface." Those solutions will stay submerged, 

he says, "unless you create a culture that encourages creative approaches, where it's OK 

to have bad ideas." 

...

The Payoff 

In The Courage to Create, Rollo May wrote that for much of [the twentieth] century, 

researchers had avoided the subject of creativity because they perceived it as "unsci- 

entific, mysterious, disturbing and too corruptive of the scientific training of graduate 

students." But today researchers are coming to see that creativity, at once fugitive and 

ubiquitous, is the mark of human nature itself. 

Whether in business or the arts, politics, or personal relationships, creativity involves 

"going beyond the information given" to create or reveal something new in the world. 

And almost invariably, when the mind exercises its creative muscle, it also generates 

a sense of pleasure. The feeling may be powerfully mystical, as it is for New York artist 

Rhonda Zwillinger, whose embellished artwork appeared in the film Slaves of New York. 

Zwillinger reports, "There are times when I'm working and it is almost as though I'm 

a vessel and there is a force operating through me. It is the closest I come to having 

a religious experience." The creative experience may also be quiet and full of wonder, 

as it was for Isaac Newton, who compared his lifetime of creative effort to "a boy play- 

ing on the seashore and diverting himself and then finding a smoother pebble or prettier 

shell than ordinary, while the greater ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." 

But whatever the specific sensation, creativity always carries with it a power- 

ful sense of the mind working at the peak of its ability. Creativity truly is, as David 

Perkins calls it, the mind's best work, its finest effort. We may never know exactly 

how the brain does it, but we can feel that it is exactly what the brain was meant 

to do. 

Aha!

Questions for Analysis 

1. According to the authors, "Creativity . . . is the search for the elusive 'Aha,' 

that moment of insight when one sees the world, or a problem, or an idea, in a 

new way." Describe an "aha" moment that you have had recently, detailing the 

origin of your innovative idea and how you implemented it. 

2. Identify some of the influences in your life thal conspirators when we participate in planning and 

executing crimes. 

Those in charge have the right to assign technical responsibility to others, 

responsibility for executing parts of a plan, but moral responsibility cannot be given, 

taken away, or transferred. Still, these words--mere words--on the part of the 

experimenter eased subjects' "sense of responsibility." So long as the institutions 

of which we are a part are moral, the need to distinguish technical from moral 

responsibility need not arise. When those institutions involve wanton torture, we are 

obliged to think critically about this distinction. 

There is a third illusion illustrated in the Milgram experiment. When subjects 

threatened to disobey, the experimenter kept them in line with prods, the last 

of which was, "You have no choice; you must go on." Some subjects fell for this, 

believed that they had no choice. But this is also nonsense. There may be cases in 

life when we feel that we have no choice, but we know we always do. Often feeling we 

have no choice is really a matter of believing that the cost of moral action is greater 

than we are willing to bear--in the extreme we may not be willing to offer our lives, 

and sometimes properly so. Sometimes we use what others have done to support the 

claim that we have no choice; indeed, some students interpret the levels of obedience 

in the Milgram experiment as proof that the subjects had no choice. But we all know 

they did. Even in extreme situations, we have a choice, whether we choose to exercise 

it or not. The belief that our role, our desires, our past, or the actions of others 

preclude our acting morally is a convenient but illusory way of distancing ourselves

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 505

from the evil that surrounds us. It is an illusion from which we should choose to 

disabuse our students.

Pressure to Go Along with Abuse Is Strong, 

but Some Soldiers Find Strength to Refuse 

by Anahad O'Connor

The images of prisoner abuse still trickling out of Iraq show a side of human behavior 

that psychologists have sought to understand for decades. But the murky reports of a 

handful of soldiers who refused to take part bring to light a behavior psychologists find 

even more puzzling: disobedience. 

Buried in his report earlier this year on Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq, Maj. Gen. Antonio M. 

Taguba praised the actions of three men who tried to stop the mistreatment of Iraqi

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Resisting the Pressure to Go Along with Authority 

The discovery in 2004 of the events at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq focused on 

the shameful abuse of prisoners that took place. Yet there were other examples of 

soldiers who resisted 

the pressure to "go 

along." Why do you 

think that some 

individuals went along 

with the abuse and 

others refused to? 

How does this relate 

to the findings in 

Milgram's experiment? 

AP Photo

Source: Anahad O'Connor, "Pressure to Go Along with Abuse Is Strong, but Some Soldiers Find Strength 

to Refuse." From The New York Times, © May 14, 2004, The New York Times. All rights reserved. Used 

by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States. The printing, copying, 

redistribution, or retransmission of the Material without express written permission is prohibited.

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506 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

detainees. They are nowhere to be seen in the portraits of brutality that have touched 

off outrage around the world. 

Although details of their actions are sketchy, it is known that one soldier, Lt. David O. 

Sutton, put an end to one incident and alerted his commanders. William J. Kimbro, a 

Navy dog handler, "refused to participate in improper interrogations despite significant 

pressure" from military intelligence, according to the report. And Specialist Joseph M. 

Darby gave military police the evidence that sounded the alarm. 

In numerous studies over the past few decades, psychologists have found that a 

certain percentage of people simply refuse to give in to pressure--by authorities or by 

peers--if they feel certain actions are wrong. 

The soldiers have been reluctant to elaborate on what they saw and why they came 

forward. In an interview with The Virginian-Pilot in Norfolk, [VA], Lieutenant Sutton, 

a Newport News police sergeant, said, "I don't want to judge, but yes, I witnessed 

something inappropriate and I reported it." 

The public will assume that there was widespread corruption, he told another local 

paper, "when in reality, it's just one bad apple." 

In the noted experiment 40 years ago when Dr. Stanley Milgram showed that most 

t have inhibited your creative 

development, including the "myths" about creativity that are described in the 

article. 

3. Using the ideas contained in this chapter and in this article, identify some of 

the strategies that you intend to use in order to become more creative in your 

life: for example, becoming more mindful, destroying the "voice of criticism," 

and creating an atmosphere more conducive to creativity.

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42 Chapter 1 Thinking

Revenge of the Right Brain 

by Daniel H. Pink 

When I was a kid growing up in a middle-class family, in the middle of America, in the 

middle of the 1970s--parents dished out a familiar plate of advice to their children: 

Get good grades, go to college, and pursue a profession that offers a decent standard of 

living and perhaps a dollop of prestige. If you were good at math and science, become 

a doctor. If you were better at English and history, become a lawyer. If blood grossed 

you out and your verbal skills needed work, become an accountant. Later, as comput- 

ers appeared on desktops and CEOs on magazine covers, the youngsters who were really 

good at math and science chose high tech, while others flocked to business school, 

thinking that success was spelled MBA. 

Tax attorneys. 

Radiologists. Financial ana- 

lysts. Software engineers. 

Management guru Peter 

Drucker gave this cadre of 

professionals an enduring, 

if somewhat wonky, name: 

knowledge workers. These 

are, he wrote, "people who 

get paid for putting to work 

what one learns in school 

rather than for their physical 

strength or manual skill." What 

distinguished members of this 

group and enabled them to 

reap society's greatest rewards, 

was their "ability to acquire 

and to apply theoretical and 

analytic knowledge." And any 

of us could join their ranks. All 

we had to do was study hard 

and play by the rules of the 

meritocratic regime. That was 

the path to professional suc- 

EMEK

cess and personal fulfillment.

Source: "Revenge of the Right Brain," by Daniel Pink, Adapted from A Whole New Mind: Moving from 

the Information Age to the Conceptual Age. Copyright © 2006 Riverhead Books. Found in adapted form 

at Wired, Feb. 2005, http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/brain.html

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Living Creatively 43

But a funny thing happened while we were pressing our noses to the grindstone: The 

world changed. The future no longer belongs to people who can reason with computer- 

like logic, speed, and precision. It belongs to a different kind of person with a different 

kind of mind. Today--amid the uncertainties of an economy that has gone from boom 

to bust to blah--there's a metaphor that explains what's going on. And it's right inside 

our heads. 

Scientists have long known that a neurological Mason-Dixon line cleaves our 

brains into two regions--the left and right hemispheres. But in the last 10 years, 

thanks in part to advances in functional magnetic resonance imaging, researchers 

have begun to identify more precisely how the two sides divide responsibilities. The 

left hemisphere handles sequence, literalness, and analysis. The right hemisphere, 

meanwhile, takes care of context, emotional expression, and synthes people will deliver a lethal dose of electricity to another subject if instructed to do so 

by a scientist in a white lab coat, a minority still said no. 

"These people are rare," said Dr. Elliot Aronson, a professor of psychology at the 

University of California, Santa Cruz, who studies social influence. "It's really hard for us 

to predict in advance who is going to resist by looking at things like demographic data 

or religious background." 

The men singled out by General Taguba dissented despite the threat of being 

ridiculed or even court-martialed for not following orders. Psychologists believe they 

may have been guided by a strong moral compass and past experiences with conformity. 

"It is sometimes the case that they themselves have been scapegoated or turned 

on by the crowd," said Dr. John Darley, a professor of psychology and public affairs 

at Princeton. "If you go back into the lives of these people you can often find some 

incident that has made very vivid to them the pressures of conformity working on the 

others in the group." 

People who break from the crowd to blow the whistle, history shows, are often 

the most psychologically distanced from the situation. In 1968, Hugh Thompson, a 

helicopter pilot, was flying over Vietnam as G.I.'s were killing civilians. The soldiers 

on the ground had been told that the village, My Lai, was a Vietcong stronghold. But 

from above Mr. Thompson could see there was no enemy fire. He landed his helicopter, 

rescued some villagers, and told his commanders about the massacre. 

What happened there, and what occurred at Abu Ghraib, Dr. Darley said, was a slow 

escalation. 

Referring to reports that the guards were told to "soften up" the prisoners for 

interrogation, he said that it apparently "drifted more and more toward humiliation." 

"Perhaps they thought they were doing the right thing," he said. "But someone who 

didn't get caught up at the start, someone who walks in and hasn't been involved in the 

escalation, like the pilot Thompson, can see the process for what it really is." 

Mr. Thompson was supported by his gunner, Larry Colburn, who helped him round up 

civilians and radioed for help.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning 507

It is not clear when the three men cited in General Taguba's report tried to interfere 

with the interrogations or whether they had contact with one another. But a transcript 

of a court-martial hearing on May 1 suggests that additional officers who knew one 

another also tried to pass reports of the scandal up the chain of command. 

Dr. Solomon E. Asch showed in experiments on compliance half a century ago 

that people are more likely to break from a group if they have an ally. Subjects in his 

experiment were asked to look at different lines on a card and judge their lengths. Each 

subject was unknowingly placed in a group of "confederates" who deliberately chose a 

line that was obviously wrong. About a third of the time, the subjects would give in and 

go along with the majority. 

But if one confederate broke from the group and gave another answer, even a wrong 

answer, the subjects were more likely to give the response they knew was correct. 

"The more you feel support for your dissent, the more likely you are to do it," said 

Dr. Danny Axsom, an associate professor of psychology at Virginia Tech. 

A lack of supervision, which General Taguba pointed out in his report, and confusion 

over the chain of command, Dr. Axsom said, may have also emboldened the three 

soldiers. 

"There was less perceived legitimacy," he said. "If it's clear who the authority is, 

then you're more likely to obey. If it's not, then the legitimacy of the whole undertaking 

is undermined." 

The power to resist coercion reflects what psychologists call internal locus of 

control, or the ability to determine one's own destiny. People at the other end of the 

scale, with external locus of control, are more heavily influenced by authority figures. 

They prefer to put their fate in the hands of others. 

"If they fail a test, it's the teacher's fault; if they do poorly at a job, it's the boss's 

fault," said Dr. Thomas Ollendick, a professor of psychology at Virginia Tech. "They put 

the blame for everything outside of themselves. They are high in conformity because 

they believe someone else [is] in charge." 

The average person, research shows, falls somewhere in the middle of the scale. 

People who voluntarily enlist in the military, knowing they will take orders, Dr. Ollendick 

suggested, may be more likely to conform. "These are people who are being told what to 

do," he said. "The ones who are conforming from the outset feel they can't change the 

system they're in. Those who blow the whistle can go above the situation and survive. They 

can basically endure whatever negative consequences might come from their actions."

Questions for Analysis 

1. Sabini and Silver describe the reasons they believe that the majority of subjects 

in the Stanley Milgram experiment were willing to inflict apparent pain and 

injury on an innocent person. Explain what you believe were the most signifi- 

cant reasons for the absence of critical thinking and moral responsibility by 

many individuals. 

2. O'Connor's article focuses on three individuals who were able to resist the 

pressures to inflict pain on Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison. Why were 

these individuals able to retain their critical-thiis. Of course, the 

human brain, with its 100 billion cells forging 1 quadrillion connections, is breath- 

takingly complex. The two hemispheres work in concert, and we enlist both sides for 

nearly everything we do. But the structure of our brains can help explain the contours 

of our times. 

Until recently, the abilities that led to success in school, work, and business were 

characteristic of the left hemisphere. They were the sorts of linear, logical, analyti- 

cal talents measured by SATs and deployed by CPAs. Today, those capabilities are still 

necessary. But they're no longer sufficient. In a world upended by outsourcing, deluged 

with data, and choked with choices, the abilities that matter most are now closer in 

spirit to the specialties of the right hemisphere--artistry, empathy, seeing the big pic- 

ture, and pursuing the transcendent. 

Beneath the nervous clatter of our half-completed decade stirs a slow but seismic 

shift. The Information Age we all prepared for is ending. Rising in its place is what 

I call the Conceptual Age, an era in which mastery of abilities that we've often over- 

looked and undervalued marks the fault line between who gets ahead and who falls 

behind. 

To some of you, this shift--from an economy built on the logical, sequential abili- 

ties of the Information Age to an economy built on the inventive, empathic abilities of 

the Conceptual Age--sounds delightful. "You had me at hello!" I can hear the painters 

and nurses exulting. But to others, this sounds like a crock. "Prove it!" I hear the pro- 

grammers and lawyers demanding. 

OK. To convince you, I'll explain the reasons for this shift, using the mechanistic 

language of cause and effect. 

The effect: the scales tilting in favor of right brain-style thinking. The causes: Asia, 

automation, and abundance.

Asia 

Few issues today spark more controversy than outsourcing. Those squadrons of white- 

collar workers in India, the Philippines, and China are scaring the bejesus out of soft- 

ware jockeys across North America and Europe. According to Forrester Research, 1 in

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44 Chapter 1 Thinking

9 jobs in the US information technology industry will move overseas by 2010. And it's 

not just tech work. Visit India's office parks and you'll see chartered accountants prepar- 

ing American tax returns, lawyers researching American lawsuits, and radiologists reading 

CAT scans for US hospitals. 

The reality behind the alarm is this: Outsourcing to Asia is overhyped in the short 

term, but underhyped in the long term. We're not all going to lose our jobs tomorrow. 

(The total number of jobs lost to offshoring so far represents less than 1 percent of 

the US labor force.) But as the cost of communicating with the other side of the globe 

falls essentially to zero, as India becomes (by 2010) the country with the most English 

speakers in the world, and as developing nations continue to mint millions of extremely 

capable knowledge workers, the professional lives of people in the West will change 

dramatically. If number crunching, chart reading, and code writing can be done for a 

lot less overseas and delivered to clients instantly via fiber-optic cable, that's where the 

work will go. 

But these gusts of comparative advantage are blowing away only certain kinds of 

white-collar jobs--those that can be reduced to a set of rules, routines, and instruc- 

tions. That's why narrow left-brain work such as basic computer coding, account- 

ing, legal research, and financial analysis is migrating across the oceans. But that's 

also why plenty of opportunities remain for people and companies doing less routine 

work--programmers who can design entire systems, accountants who serve as life plan- 

ners, and bankers expert less in the intricacies of Excel than in the art of the deal. 

Now that foreigners can do left-brain work cheaper, we in the US must do right-brain 

work better.

Automation 

Last century, machines proved they could replace human muscle. This century, technolo- 

gies are proving they can outperform human left brains--they can execute sequential, 

reductive, computational work better, faster, and more accurately than even those with 

the highest IQs. (Just ask chess grandmaster Garry Kasparov.) 

Consider jobs in financial services. Stockbrokers who merely execute transactions are 

history. Online trading services and market makers do such work far more efficiently. The 

brokers who survived have morphed from routine order-takers to less easily replicated 

advisers, who can understand a client's broader financial objectives and even the client's 

emotions and dreams. 

Or take lawyers. Dozens of inexpensive information and advice services are reshaping 

law practice. At CompleteCase.com, you can get an uncontested divorce for $249, less 

than a 10th of the cost of a divorce lawyer. Meanwhile, the Web is cracking the infor- 

mation monopoly that has long been the source of many lawyers' high incomes and pro- 

fessional mystique. Go to USlegalforms.com and you can download--for the price of two 

movie tickets--fill-in-the-blank wills, contracts, and articles of incorporation that used 

to reside exclusively on lawyers' hard drives. Instead of hiring a lawyer for 10 hours to 

craft a contract, consumers can fill out the form themselves and hire a lawyer for one 

hour to look it over. Consequently, legal abilities that can't be digitized--convincing a 

jury or understanding the subtleties of a negotiation--become more valuable.

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Living Creatively 45

Even computer programmers may feel the pinch. "In the old days," legendary 

computer scientist Vernor Vinge has said, "anybody with even routine skills could get 

a job as a programmer. That isn't true anymore. The routine functions are increas- 

ingly being turned over to machines." The result: As the scut work gets offloaded, 

engineers will have to master different aptitudes, relying more on creativity than 

competence. 

Any job that can be reduced to a set of rules is at risk. If a $500-a-month 

accountant in India doesn't swipe your accounting job, TurboTax will. Now that com- 

puters can emulate left-hemisphere skills, we'll have to rely ever more on our right 

hemispheres.

Abundance 

Our left brains have made us rich. Powered by armies of Drucker's knowledge work- 

ers, the information economy has produced a standard of living that would have been 

unfathomable in our grandparents' youth. Their lives were defined by scarcity. Ours are 

shaped by abundance. Want evidence? Spend five minutes at Best Buy. Or look in your 

garage. Owning a car used to be a grand American aspiration. Today, there are more 

automobiles in the US than there are licensed drivers--which means that, on aver- 

age, everybody who can drive has a car of their own. And if your garage is also piled 

with excess consumer goods, you're not alone. Self-storage--a business devoted to 

housing our extra crap--is now a $17 billion annual industry in the US, nearly double 

Hollywood's yearly box office take. 

But abundance has produced an ironic result. The Information Age has unleashed 

a prosperity that in turn places a premium on less rational sensibilities--beauty, 

spirituality, emotion. For companies and entrepreneurs, it's no longer enough to cre- 

ate a product, a service, or an experience that's reasonably priced and adequately 

functional. In an age of abundance, consumers demand something more. Check out 

your bathroom. If you're like a few million Americans, you've got a Michael Graves 

toilet brush or a Karim Rashid trash can that you bought at Target. Try explain- 

ing a designer garbage pail to the left side of your brain! Or consider illumination. 

Electric lighting was rare a century ago, but now it's commonplace. Yet in the US, 

candles are a $2 billion a year business--for reasons that stretch beyond the logical 

need for luminosity to a prosperous country's more inchoate desire for pleasure and 

transcendence. 

Liberated by this prosperity but not fulfilled by it, more people are searchingnking abilities and sense of

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508 Chapter 11 Reasoning Critically

moral responsibility in the face of powerful pressures to do otherwise, includ- 

ing the obedience to authority? 

3. Sabini and Silver argue that the ability to think critically must be developed 

within a social context, that we must expose our thinking to the criticism of 

others because "individual thinking, even the best of it, is prey to distortions 

of all kinds, from mere ignorance to 'bad faith.'" Explain how "allies" were 

helpful in enabling those at Abu Ghraib prison to resist the pressure to con- 

form to the prevailing norm of prisoner abuse. 

4. Sabini and Silver contend that in order to act with critical thinking and moral 

courage, people must be taught to confront authority, and the individuals 

highlighted in O'Connor's article demonstrated precisely this ability. Explain 

how you think people can be taught and encouraged to confront authority in a 

constructive way. 

5. "Even in extreme situations, we have a choice, whether we choose to exercise 

it or not. The belief that our role, our desires, our past, or the actions of oth- 

ers preclude our acting morally is a convenient but illusory way of distancing 

ourselves from the evil that surrounds us." Evaluate this claim in light of the 

behavior of the military and intelligence personnel at Abu Ghraib prison, 

both those who participated in prisoner abuse and those who resisted such 

participation.

CHAPTER 11 Reviewing and Viewing 

Summary 

· Inductive argument is an argument form in · Causal reasoning is a form of inductive reason- 

which one reasons from premises assumed ing in which an event (or events) is claimed to 

to be true to a conclusion supported (but not be the result of another event (or events). 

logically) by the premises. · The scientific method works on the assump- 

· Fallacies are unsound arguments that are tion that the world is constructed in a com- 

often persuasive and appearing to be logical plex web of causal relationships that can be 

because the for 

meaning. From the mainstream embrace of such once-exotic practices as yoga and medi- 

tation to the rise of spirituality in the workplace to the influence of evangelism in pop 

culture and politics, the quest for meaning and purpose has become an integral part of 

everyday life. And that will only intensify as the first children of abundance, the baby 

boomers, realize that they have more of their lives behind them than ahead. In both 

business and personal life, now that our left-brain needs have largely been sated, our 

right-brain yearnings will demand to be fed. 

As the forces of Asia, automation, and abundance strengthen and accelerate, the 

curtain is rising on a new era, the Conceptual Age. If the Industrial Age was built on

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46 Chapter 1 Thinking

people's backs, and the Information Age on people's left hemispheres, the Conceptual 

Age is being built on people's right hemispheres. We've progressed from a society of 

farmers to a society of factory workers to a society of knowledge workers. And now we're 

progressing yet again--to a society of creators and empathizers, pattern recognizers, 

and meaning makers. 

But let me be clear: The future is not some Manichaean landscape in which indi- 

viduals are either left-brained and extinct or right-brained and ecstatic--a land in 

which millionaire yoga instructors drive BMWs and programmers scrub counters at 

Chick-fil-A. Logical, linear, analytic thinking remains indispensable. But it's no longer 

enough. 

To flourish in this age, we'll need to supplement our well-developed high tech 

abilities with aptitudes that are "high concept" and "high touch." High concept 

involves the ability to create artistic and emotional beauty, to detect patterns and 

opportunities, to craft a satisfying narrative, and to come up with inventions the 

world didn't know it was missing. High touch involves the capacity to empathize, 

to understand the subtleties of human interaction, to find joy in one's self and to 

elicit it in others, and to stretch beyond the quotidian in pursuit of purpose and 

meaning. 

Developing these high concept, high touch abilities won't be easy for everyone. 

For some, the prospect seems unattainable. Fear not (or at least fear less). The sorts 

of abilities that now matter most are fundamentally human attributes. After all, back 

on the savannah, our caveperson ancestors weren't plugging numbers into spread- 

sheets or debugging code. But they were telling stories, demonstrating empathy, and 

designing innovations. These abilities have always been part of what it means to be 

human. It's just that after a few generations in the Information Age, many of our 

high concept, high touch muscles have atrophied. The challenge is to work them back 

into shape. 

Want to get ahead today? Forget what your parents told you. Instead, do something 

foreigners can't do cheaper. Something computers can't do faster. And something that 

fills one of the nonmaterial, transcendent desires of an abundant age. In other words, 

go right, young man and woman, go right.

Questions for Analysis 

1. Explain the differences between what the author characterizes as the Industrial 

Age, the Information Age, and the Conceptual Age. Why does he feel that 

being a "knowledge worker" will be no longer sufficient for achieving success 

in the new Conceptual Age? 

2. Identify and describe the social forces that the author believes are responsible 

for moving us from the Information Age to the Conceptual Age. 

3. According to the author, the thinking abilities associated with left-brain 

thinking are linear, logical, and analytic, while the thinking abilities associ- 

ated with right-brain thinking involve artistry, empathy, inventiveness, and 

seeing the big picture. Using examples, explain how being able to think in 

both of these ways is advantageous for most careers.

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Thinking Ahead 47

Thinking Ahead 

The first line of this chapter stated, "Thinking is the extraordinary process 

we use every waking moment to make sense of our world and our lives." 

Throughout this chapter we have explored the different ways our thinking 

enables us to make sense of the world by working toward goals, making deci- 

sions, and living creatively. Of course, our thinking helps us make sense of the 

world in other ways as well. When we attend a concert, listen to a lecture, or try 

to understand someone's behavior, it is our thinking that enables us to figure 

out what is happening. In fact, these attempts to make sense of what is happen- 

ing are going on all the time in our lives, and they represent the heart of the 

thinking process. 

If we review the different ways of thinking we have explored in this chapter, we 

can reach several conclusions about thinking:

· Thinking is directed toward a purpose. When we think, it is usually for a 

purpose--to reach a goal, make a decision, or analyze an issue. 

· Thinking is an organized process. When we think effectively, there is usually 

an order or organization to our thinking. For each of the thinking activities we 

explored, we saw that there are certain steps or approaches to take that help us 

reach goals, make decisions, and live creatively.

We can put together these conclusions about thinking to form a working defini- 

tion of the term. 

Thinking develops with use over a lifetime, and we can improve our thinking thinking A 

in an organized and systematic way by following these steps: purposeful, 

organized cog- 

· Carefully examining our thinking process and the thinking process of others. nitive process 

that we use 

In this chapter we have explored various ways in which our thinking works. 

to understand 

By focusing our attention on these (and other) thinking approaches and strat- the world and 

egies, we can learn to think more effectively. make informed 

· Practicing our thinking abilities. To improve our thinking, we actually have decisions. 

to think for ourselves, to explore and make sense of thinking situations by 

using our thinking abilities. Although it is important to read about thinking 

and learn how other people think, there is no substitute for actually doing it 

ourselves.

Examining critical thinking and creative thinking is a rich and complex 

enterprise. These two dimensions of the thinking process are so tightly inter- 

woven that both must be addressed together in order to understand them indi- 

vidually. For example, you can use your creative thinking abilities to visualize 

your ideal future. With this idea as a starting point, you can then use your 

critical thinking abilities to refine your idea and research existing opportuni- 

ties. Once a clear goal is established, you can use your creative thinking abilities

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48 Chapter 1 Thinking

to generate possible ideas for achieving this goal, while your critical thinking 

abilities can help you evaluate your various options and devise a practical, 

organized plan. 

It is apparent that creative thinking and critical thinking work as partners to 

produce productive and effective thinking, thus enabling us to make informed 

decisions and lead successful lives. As this text unfolds, you will be given the oppor- 

tunity to become familiar with both of these powerful forms of thought as you 

develop your abilities to think both critically and creatively.

CHAPTER 1 Reviewing and Viewing 

Summary 

· Living an examined life means painting your · We can make more intelligent decisions by 

life portrait with reflective understanding and using an organized five-step approach to 

informed choices. guide our analysis. 

· Thinking Critically involves carefully · Living your life creatively means 

exploring the thinking process to clarify our bringing your unique perspective and 

understanding and make more intelligent creative talents to all of the dimensions of 

decisions. your life. 

· Thinking Creatively involves using our · Creative thinking and critical thinking 

thinking process to develop ideas that are work as partners to produce productive 

unique, useful, and worthy of further and effective thinking, thus enabling us 

elaboration. to make informed decisions and lead 

· Achieving your goals involves identifying the successful lives. 

"right" goals and then developing an effective 

plan of action.

Suggested Films 

Amelie (2001) 

A discovery inspires a solitary, young French woman to creatively re-imagine her 

own life and to bring creativity and wonder to the lives of others. The film is a cel- 

ebration of life, and our ability to change our lives by shifting our perspectives.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights resty usually appeal to our emotions discovered through systematic investigation. 

and prejudices. · A hypothesis is a possible explanation that is 

· Empirical generalization is a form of induc- introduced to account for a set of facts and that 

tive reasoning in which a general statement can be used as a basis for further investigation. 

is made about an entire group (the "target · "The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning" 

population") based on observing some mem- is an organized approach for exploring 

bers of the group (the "sample population"). complex issues.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Suggested Films 

The Fog of War (2004) 

This Errol Morris documentary, which focuses on former secretary of defense 

Robert McNamara, brings critical reasoning to the events of American history 

and raises questions about the ethical implications of obeying authority as well as 

the responsibility of holding that position of power. Throughout, Morris attempts 

to reveal the perspectives behind controversial moments in history, including the 

U.S. commitment to the Vietnam War.

Supersize Me (2004) 

How does business and consumerism affect our health? What are the respon- 

sibilities of any business to costumer health? Director Morgan Spurlock docu- 

ments thirty days in which he only eats McDonald's food. He critically explores 

the physical and psychological effects of his experiment, raises ethical questions 

regarding the role of America's commercial food industry in contributing to obe- 

sity, and asks us to question the authority behind the food we eat.

Thank You for Smoking (2005) 

A Big Tobacco spokesman defends the cigarette industry through spin tactics 

such as media promotion and censorship of information about the dangers of 

smoking. He simultaneously attempts to act as role model for his adolescent 

son. This satire provides insight into the forces shaping our perceptions and the 

importance of critical reasoning in making sound choices.

509 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

CHAPTER 

12

Are You the Master of Your Fate? 

L e doe 

Lif oes not come e wi 

with 

t a set o instructions. It's up to ea 

set of ach one 

of us to dea 

eal as best 

o de st we 

w cac n with th hallenges and opportuni- 

he chal 

tie 

ties it 

th wh 

s with w ichhwwe a p 

are present nted. As critical thinkers we 

d As n ed 

e ne 

o dev 

to d veloop our 

u und ers 

rs 

rstan 

nders stan 

ta 

andin 

d g of the h world and ou rselve 

urse l s so 

elve so 

t 

rictions require it. 

Examined Life (2008) 

Filmmaker Astra Taylor interviews leading contemporary philosophers in an 

effort to examine the application of philosophy in the world today. Her conver- 

sations with Cornel West, Peter Singer, Michael Hardt, Martha Nussbaum, and 

others illuminate vital importance of critical and creative thinking in the modern 

world.

The Visitor (2007) 

A widowed professor connects with an immigrant couple that has been living 

illegally in his apartment. His friendship with them allows for his own creative 

growth and significantly changes his perspective on himself and the world.

49 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

CHAPTER 

2

During a prodemocracy protest, a student stands up 

©Photo by CNN via Getty Images 

for what he believes y blo 

es by c ng 

blocki g the way y of a line 

of Communist military tanks in Tiananmen Square in 

China in 1989. Stated beliefs and actions based on 

sound critical thinking have sometimes lead people 

to make difficult or unpopular decisions, or, as in 

this case, have even put their lives at risk. Have you 

ever made a difficult or unpopular decision based 

on your critical thinking? Would you do it again? (To 

read more about the event at Tiananmen Square, see 

Thinking Activity 5.5.)

50 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Thinking Critically

Becoming a Critical Thinker

Thinking actively

Carefully exploring 

situations with questions

Thinking independently

Thin 

Th in 

inki 

ki 

king gC 

ng Cri 

ri 

riti 

tica 

ti ca ll 

lly 

call y Viewing situations 

C aref 

Car ull 

fullly 

ly expl 

plor 

ori 

lor th 

ing t he th 

thiinki 

inki 

in ng proc 

kin oces 

es 

ess 

ss from different perspectives 

l rif 

ify o 

to clarify ur und 

our ders 

nde rsta 

tan din 

ndi and 

ng an m ke 

d ma 

more intelligent decisions. 

Supporting diverse perspectives 

with reasons and evidence 

Copyright © Cengage Learning

Discussing ideas in 

an organized way

Analyzing issues

51 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materialthaat we 

at an mak 

we can mak 

ake h mos 

e the most nli 

t enli 

igh 

g 

ght 

h een 

n d choi 

ene oi 

ices 

ces p ssi 

ible 

possi e.

510 Floresco Productions/OJO Images/Jupiter Images

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Thinking Critically, 

Living Creatively

Living Creatively 

Developing ideas that are unique, 

useful, and worthy of 

further elaboration

Thinking Critically 

Carefully examining our 

thinking in order to clarify and 

improve understanding

Creating a Life Philosophy 

Copyright © Cengage Learnly affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

52 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

I n ancient Greece, most advanced students studied philosophy in order to 

achieve "wisdom." (The term philosophy in Greek means "lover of wisdom.") 

In today's world, many college students are hoping, through their studies, to become 

the modern-day equivalent: informed, critical thinkers. A critical thinker is someone 

who has developed a knowledgeable understanding of our complex world, a thought- 

ful perspective on important ideas and timely issues, the capacity for penetrating 

insight and intelligent judgment, and sophisticated thinking and language abilities. 

The word critical comes from the Greek word for "critic" (kritikos), which 

means "to question, to make sense of, to be able to analyze." It is by questioning, 

making sense of situations, and analyzing issues that we examine our thinking and 

the thinking of others. These critical activities aid us in reaching the best possible 

conclusions and decisions. The word critical is also related to the word criticize, 

which means "to question and evaluate." Unfortunately, the ability to criticize is 

often used only destructively, to tear down someone else's thinking. Criticism, 

however, can also be constructive--analyzing for the purpose of developing a better 

understanding of what is going on. We will engage in constructive criticism as we 

develop our ability to think critically. 

Thinking is the way you make sense of the world; thinking critically is think- 

ing about your thinking so that you can clarify and improve it. In this chapter you 

will explore ways to examine your thinking so that you can develop it to the fullest 

extent possible. That is, you will discover how to think critically. 

Becoming a critical thinker transforms you in positive ways by enabling you to 

become an expert learner, view the world clearly, and make productive choices as 

you shape your life. Critical thinking is not simply one way of thinking; it is a total 

approach to understanding how you make sense of a world that includes many parts. 

The best way to develop a clear and concrete idea of the critical thinker you 

want to become is to think about people you have known who can serve as 

critical-thinking models. They appear throughout humanity. The Greek philoso- 

pher Socrates was in many ways the original critical thinker for whom we have 

a historical record, and the depth and clarity of his thinking is immortalized in 

ing

· Establishing harmonious relationships 

· Choosing freely 

· Choosing a meaningful life 

· Choosing a satisfying career

511 

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512 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

Living a Life Philosophy 

As the artist of your own life, your brush strokes express your philosophy of life, a 

vision that incorporates your most deeply held values, aspirations, and convictions. 

The challenge you face is to create a coherent view of the world that expresses who 

you are as well as the person you want to become. It should be a vision that not only 

guides your actions but also enables you to understand the value of your experi- 

ences, the significance of your relationships, and the meaning of your life. 

The quality of your life philosophy is a direct result of your abilities to think 

critically and think creatively, abilities that you have been developing while 

working on activities presented throughout this book. But a life philosophy is 

incomplete until it is acted upon through the decisions you make, decisions made 

possible by your ability to choose freely. These are the three life principles of 

human transformation upon which this book is based: Thinking Critically, Living 

Creatively, Choosing Freely. These three principles are interlocking pieces of the 

puzzle of your life. Working together as a unified force, these principles can illumi- 

nate your existence: answering questions, clarifying confusion, creating meaning, 

and providing fulfillment. 

· Think critically: When used properly, your thinking process acts like a 

powerful beacon of light, illuminating the depths of your personality and the 

breadth of your experience. Clear thinking is a tool that helps you disentangle 

the often-confused jumble of thoughts and feelings that compose much of 

your waking consciousness. By becoming a more powerful critical thinker, 

you are acquiring the abilities you need to achieve your goals, solve prob- 

lems, and make intelligent decisions. Critical thinkers are people who have 

developed thoughtful and well-founded beliefs to guide their choices in every 

area of their lives. In order to develop the strongest and most accurate beliefs 

possible, you need to become aware of your own biases, explore situations 

from many different perspectives, and develop sound reasons to support your 

points of view. 

· Live creatively: Creativity is a powerful life force that can infuse your exis- 

tence with meaning. Working in partnership with critical thinking, creative 

thinking helps you transform your life into a rich tapestry of productivity 

and success. When you approach your life with a mindful sense of discovery 

and invention, you can continually create yourself in ways limited only by 

your imagination. A creative lens changes everything for the better: Problems 

become opportunities for growth, mundane routines become challenges for 

inventive approaches, relationships become intriguing adventures. When you 

give free rein to your creative impulses, every aspect of your life takes on a 

special glow. You are able to break out of unthinking habitual responses and 

live fully in every minute, responding naturally and spontaneously. It sounds 

magical, and it is.

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Living a Life Philosophy 513

· Choose freely: People can transform themselves only if they choose to take 

different paths in their lives--and only if their choices are truly free. To exer- 

cise genuine freedom, you must have the insight to understand all of your 

options and the wisdom to make informed choices. When you fully accept 

your freedom, you redefine your daily life and view your future in a new 

light. By working to neutralize the constraints on your autonomy and guide 

your life in positive directions, you see alternatives that were not previously 

visible, having been concealed by the limitations of your previous vision. 

Your future becomes open, a field of rich possibilities that you can explore 

and choose among. A life that is free is one that is vital and exciting, suffused 

with unexpected opportunities and the personal fulfillment that comes from a 

life well lived. 

Your "self" is, in its essence, a dynamic life force that is capable of thinking criti- 

cally, creating, and choosing freely. These three essential dimensions of your self 

ex the Dialogues recorded by Plato, his student. As a renowned teacher in his native 

city of Athens, Socrates had created his own school and spent decades teaching 

young people how to analyze important issues through dialectical questioning--an 

Socratic method approach that became known as the Socratic method. At the age of seventy, he was 

A method of 

deemed a dangerous troublemaker by some of the ruling politicians. Based on his 

inquiry that 

uses a dynamic 

teachings, students were asking embarrassing questions; in particular, they were 

approach of questioning the politicians' authority and threatening their political careers. Those 

questioning publicly accusing him gave Socrates an ultimatum: Either leave the city where he 

and intellectual had spent his entire life, never to return, or be put to death. Rather than leave his 

analysis in order beloved Athens and the life he had created, Socrates chose death. Surrounded by 

to explore the his family and friends, he calmly drank a cup of hemlock-laced tea. He reasoned 

essential nature that leaving Athens would violate the intellectual integrity upon which he had built 

of concepts. 

his life and had taught his students to uphold. Instead of sacrificing his beliefs, he

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Thinking Critically 53

ended his life, concluding with the words: "Now it is time for us to part, I to die 

and you to live. Whether life or death is better is known to God, and to God only." 

Today especially, we all need to think like philosophers, to develop a philosophical 

framework. Critical thinking is a modern reworking of a philosophical perspective. 

Whom would you identify as expert critical thinkers? To qualify, the people you 

identify should have lively, energetic minds. Specifically, they should be: 

· Open-minded: In discussions they listen carefully to every viewpoint, 

evaluating each perspective carefully and fairly. 

· Knowledgeable: When they offer an opinion, it's always based on facts or 

evidence. On the other hand, if they lack knowledge of the subject, they 

acknowledge this. 

· Mentally active: They take initiative and actively use their intelligence to confront 

problems and meet challenges instead of simply responding passively to events. 

· Curious: They explore situations with probing questions that penetrate beneath 

the surface of issues instead of being satisfied with superficial explanations. 

· Independent thinkers: They are not afraid to disagree with the group opinion. 

They develop well-supported beliefs through thoughtful analysis instead of uncrit- 

ically "borrowing" the beliefs of others or simpist optimally when they work together in harmonious unity. When working 

together, these three basic elements create a person who is intelligent, creative, and 

determined--the ingredients for success in any endeavor. But consider the unfortu- 

nate consequences of subtracting any of these elements from the dynamic equation. 

If you lack the ability to think critically, you won't be able to function very well in 

most challenging careers because you will have difficulty thinking clearly, solv- 

ing complex problems, and making intelligent decisions. What's more, whatever 

creative ideas you come up with will be rootless, lacking an intelligible framework 

or practical strategies for implementing them. You will be an impractical dreamer, 

condemned to a life of frustrated underachieving. Without insight into yourself, 

your freedom will be imprisoned because you won't be able to see your choices 

clearly or to liberate yourself from the influences that are constraining you. 

If you lack the ability to think creatively, then your thinking abilities may enable 

you to perform in a solid, workmanlike fashion, but your work will lack imagina- 

tion, you will be afraid to try original approaches because of the risk of failure, and 

your personality will be lacking the spontaneous sparkle that people admire and 

are drawn to. You will in time become a competent but unimaginative "worker- 

bee," performing your duties with predictable adequacy but never rising to the lofty 

heights that you are capable of attaining. Your choices will be as limited as your 

imagination, and your habitual choices of safe and secure paths will eventually cre- 

ate a very small canvas for your personal portrait. 

If you lack the ability to choose freely, then your abilities to think critically or 

creatively cannot save you from a life of disappointment. Though you may be able 

to clearly analyze and understand, you will lack the will to make the difficult choices 

and stay the course when you encounter obstacles and adversities. And though you 

may develop unique and valuable ideas, your inability to focus your energies and 

make things happen will doom these ideas to anonymity. Because you lack the will 

to create yourself as a strong individual of character and integrity, the people you

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514 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

encounter will come to view you as a shallow-rooted reed that bends with the wind 

of superficial trends, not as someone deserving of authority and responsibility. 

Think of what you aspire to have: a life of purpose and meaning, the respect and 

devotion of those around you, success and fulfillment in your chosen endeavors, 

and a secure sense of who you are, a person with the courage and vision to accom- 

plish great things. These aspirations are within your grasp, but only if you develop 

all of these fundamental dimensions of your self to their fullest potential: the abili- 

ties to think critically, think creatively, and choose freely.

Choose Freely 

You have the power to create yourself through the choices that you make, but only 

if your choices are truly free. To exercise genuine freedom you must possess the 

insight to understand all of your options and the wisdom to make informed choices. 

In many instances passive, illogical and superficial thinking inhibits peoples' abilities 

to make intelligent choices and erodes their motivation to persevere when obstacles 

are encountered. This Choose Freely section is designed to provide you with the gen- 

eral framework for understanding the nature of free choice and the practical think- 

ing strategies needed to translate this understanding into transformed behaviors 

and attitudes. You can redefine your daily life in a new light and enhance its value 

through free choices derived from thinking critically and creatively.

CONDEMNED TO BE FREE 

Man is condemned to be free. Condemned, because he did not create himself, yet 

is nevertheless at liberty, and from the moment that he is thrown into this world, 

he is responsible for everything he does. 

--Jean-Paul Sartre 

This book is based on the conviction, articulated here by the philosopher Jean-Paul 

Sartre, that we create ourselves through the choices that we make, and that we are 

capable of choosing different courses of action. But often we get so caught up in 

routine, so mired in the day-to-day demands of reality and the pressures of confor- 

mity that we don't even see alternatives to our condition, much less act on them. 

Our complaints often far outnumber our shining moments, as we tend to focus on 

the forces and people that have thwarted our intentions. 

"If only I got the breaks now and then . . ." 

"If only I could get rid of my habitual tendency to ______, I would . . ." 

These complaints, and the millions of others like them, bitterly betray 

W. E. Hanley's notion that "I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my 

soul." It is much more common for people to believe that fate mastered them and 

that they never had sufficient opportunity to live life "their way." Instead of feel- 

ing free, we often feel beleaguered, trying desperately to prevent our small dinghy

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· Skilled discussants: They are able to discuss ideas in an organized and 

intelligent way. Even when the issues are controversial, they listen carefully to 

opposing viewpoints and respond thoughtfully. 

· Insightful: They are able to get to the heart of the issue or problem. While 

others may be distracted by details, they are able to zero in on the essence, 

seeing the "forest" as well as the "trees." 

· Self-aware: They are aware of their own biases and are quick to point them 

out and take them into consideration when analyzing a situation. 

· Creative: They can break out of established patterns of thinking and approach 

situations from innovative directions. 

· Passionate: They have a passion for understanding and are always striving to 

see issues and problems with more clarity. 

(To find out more about your critical thinking abilities, take the "How Effective 

A Critical Thinker Am I?" assessment in the appendix that starts on p. 548.)

Thinking Activity 2.1 

WHO IS A CRITICAL THINKER? 

Think about people you know whom you admire as expert thinkers and list some 

of the qualities these people exhibit that you believe qualify them as "critical think- 

ers." For each critical-thinking quality, write down a brief example involving the 

person. Identifying such people will help you visualize the kind of people you'd like

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54 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

to emulate. As you think your way through this book, you will be creating a portrait 

of the kind of critical thinker you are striving to become, a blueprint you can use to 

direct your development and chart your progress. 

This chapter explores some of the cognitive abilities and attitudes that 

characterize critical thinkers, including the following: 

· Thinking actively 

· Carefully exploring situations with questions 

· Thinking independently 

· Viewing situations from different perspectives 

· Supporting diverse perspectives with reasons and evidence 

· Discussing ideas in an organized way 

The remaining chapters in the book examine additional thinking abilities that 

ed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). 

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Choose Freely 515

from getting swamped in life's giant swells, rather than serenely charting a straight 

course in our sleek sailboat. 

The end result is that when people think of "being free," they often conjure 

up a romantic notion of "getting away" from their concerns and responsibilities, 

imagining a world where anything is possible and there is plenty of money to pay 

for it. However appealing this fantasy may be, it is a misconceived and unrealistic 

notion of freedom. Genuine freedom consists of making thoughtful choices from 

among the available options, choices that reflect your genuine desires and deepest 

values, resisting the pressures to surrender your autonomy to external pressures or 

internal forces. 

The most important and disturbing element of personal freedom is that it nec- 

essarily involves personal responsibility. And personal responsibility is the main 

reason why people are reluctant to embrace their freedom and in fact actively seek 

to "escape" from it. If you acknowledge that your choices are free then you must 

accept that you are responsible for the outcome of your choices. When you are suc- 

cessful, it is easy to take full responsibility for your success. But when failure occurs, 

people tend to dive for cover, blaming others or forces outside of their control. 

This is exactly what's going on in all the preceding "If only" statements and any 

others like them: they each express the belief that if only some outside force had not 

intervened, they would have achieved the goal they set for themselves. However, 

in many instances, these explanations are bogus and these efforts to escape from 

freedom are illegitimate. They represent weak and inauthentic attempts to deny 

freedom and responsibility.

FREE CHOICE: THE MAINSPRING OF HUMAN ACTION 

Every day we are confronted with the mystery of human action. One person 

commits an armed robbery, killing a guard in the process. Another person is 

found to have embezzled large sums of money from the charitable organiza- 

tion he directed. A firefighter risks his life to save the life of an infant trapped 

in a burning building. A peaceful protest gets out of control and turns into a 

violent and destructive altercation. A respected member of the community is 

accused of abusing the children on the teams that he coached. Two teenagers 

are accused of murdering their newborn infant and dumping the body in a gar- 

bage container. An 84-year-old woman who spent her life cleaning the homes 

of others donates her life savings--$186,000--to a local college with which she 

had no previous relationship. In each of these instances, and countless others, 

we struggle to understand "why" people acted the way they did. Our answers 

typically depend on our deepest beliefs about the nature of the human self. 

For example: 

Human Nature: "I believe in human nature; people are born with certain basic 

instincts that influence and determine how they behave." Based on this view, the 

actions described previously, whether "good" or "evil," are no more than the 

natural expression of a universal nature that is genetically hard-wired into every

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516 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

person. From this perspective, we should no more hold people responsible for 

their destructive actions than we would an animal in the wild that kills in order to 

survive. There is no possibility of free choice because our actions necessarily follow 

from our inborn nature, and we cannot be other than who we are. Whether you act 

virtuously or destructively in your life is really beyond your control, and you cannot 

alter your fundamental character. 

The Environment: "I believe that people are shaped by their environment, con- 

ditioned by their experiences to be the kind of people they are." From this vantage 

point, the actions described previously are the direct products of the life experi- 

ences that the individuals had. If the environment in which a person developed was 

deprived or abusive, then these forces shaped a violent individual with little regard 

for the rights or lives of others. On the other hand, if you were fortunate enough 

to grow up in a loving and nurturing environment in which kindness and empathy 

were considered paramount values, then this upbringing shaped who you are. But 

once again, you cannot be held responsible for how you turned out because you 

didn't choose your environment; you were a passive agent molded by forces beyond 

your control. And, of course, you are incapable of making free choices. We should 

no more condemn the embezzler than we should reward the firefighter who risks 

his life, since they are each merely products of environments that are ultimately 

responsible for their behavior. 

Psychological Forces: "I believe that people are governed by psychological forces, 

many of them unconscious, that cause them to think, feel, and act in certain ways." 

Based on this point of view, the actions described previously are the direct 

result of deep psychological impulses that have been formed by people's earliest 

relationships and experiences. Although these people may think they are choos- 

ing to do the things, in reality, they are puppets manipulated by unseen psycho- 

logical st you will need to develop in order to become a fully mature critical thinker.

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

"Now It Is Time for Us to Part, I to Die and You to Live. . . ." 

What can you tell about Socrates' reaction to his impending death based on this 

painting by Jacques-Louis David? What is the reaction of his family and friends? If 

you were a close friend of Socrates, what would be your reaction? Why? 

© The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY

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Thinking Actively 55

Thinking Actively 

When you think critically, you are actively using your intelligence, knowledge, 

and abilities to deal effectively with life's situations. When you think actively, 

you are:

· Getting involved in potentially useful projects and activities instead of remain- 

ing disengaged. 

· Taking initiative in making decisions on your own instead of waiting passively 

to be told what to think or do. 

· Following through on your commitments instead of giving up when you 

encounter difficulties. 

· Taking responsibility for the consequences of your decisions rather than 

unjustifiably blaming others or events "beyond your control."

When you think actively, you are not just waiting for something to happen. 

You are engaged in the process of achieving goals, making decisions, and solving 

problems. When you react passively, you let events control you or permit others to 

do your thinking for you. Thinking critically requires that you think actively--not 

react passively--to deal effectively with life's situations.

INFLUENCES ON YOUR THINKING 

As our minds grow and develop, we are exposed to influences that encourage us 

to think actively. We also have many experiences, however, that encourage us to 

think passively. For example, some analysts believe that when people, especially 

children, spend much of their time watching television, they are being influenced 

to think passively, thus inhibiting their intellectual growth. Listed here are some of 

the influences we experience in our lives along with space for you to add your own 

influences. As you read through the list, place an A next to those items you believe 

in general influence you to think actively and a P next to those you consider to be 

generally passive influences.

Activities: People: 

Reading books Family members 

Text messaging Friends 

Watching television Employers 

Dancing Advertisers 

Using Facebook School/college teachers 

Playing video games Police officers 

Playing sports Religious leaders 

Listening to music Politicians

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56 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Thinking Activity 2.2 

INFLUENCES ON OUR THINKING 

All of us are subject to powerful influences on our thinking, influences that we are 

often unaware of. For example, advertisers spend billions of dollars to manipulate 

our thinking in ways that are complex and subtle. For this exercise, choose one of 

the following tasks. 

1. Watch some commercials, with several other class members if possible, and 

discuss the techniques each advertiser is using to shape your thinking. Analyze 

with the other viewers how each of the elements in a commercial--images, 

language, music--affects an audience. Pay particular attention to the symbolic 

associations of various images and words, and identify the powerful emotions 

that these associations elicit. Why are the commercials effective? What influ- 

ential roles do commercials play in our culture as a whole? New DVR technol- 

ogies (like Tivo) enable us to watch favorite shows without commercials. If we 

never had to watch commercials, would we lose a valuable part of the cultural 

experience--for example, those commercials that everyone talks about? 

2. Select a commercial website and do an in-depth analysis of it. Explain how 

each of the site's elements--design, content, use of music or video, and links-- 

works to influence our thinking. 

Of course, in many cases people and activities can act as both active and pas- 

sive influences, depending on the situations and our individual responses. For 

example, consider employers. If we are performing a routine, repetitive job, worings. The same is true for you. So when the coach sexually abused the 

children on his teams, he was not actually choosing this reprehensible course of 

action, he was impelled by psychological forces over which he had no control. 

Similarly, your behavior results from psychological motivations, oft en repressed, 

that form the basic structure of your personality. Your feelings of freedom are 

illusory. 

Social Dynamics: "I believe that we are social creatures that are greatly influ- 

enced by the people around us." From this perspective, people's behavior results in 

large measure from the forces exerted by those around them. The need to conform 

to the prevailing norms, to be accepted by the groups to which you belong, to 

please those who are close to you, to obey those in positions of authority--these 

and other social needs determine your behavior and define who you are as an 

individual. For example, the violent actions of the initially peaceful demonstrators 

can be understood only by examining the dynamics of social interaction. Since the 

group as a whole is to blame, responsibility is removed from the individuals. In the 

same way, individuals who act illegally (or immorally) within an organization often 

seek to be exonerated on the grounds that they were merely acting as cogs in the 

machine, not independent agents. An extreme version of this occurred after World

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Choose Freely 517

War II at the Nuremberg trials when many people accused of wartime atrocities 

explained that they were "only following orders."

Thinking Activity 12.1 

YOUR THEORY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 

Think about some of the actions described at the beginning of this section. How 

would you explain why those people acted in the ways that they did? Which of 

the above theories make the most sense to you? Do you have your own theory to 

explain why people behave the way they do?

CREATING YOURSELF THROUGH FREE CHOICES 

If we examine all of these beliefs regarding the nature of human beings, we can see 

that they have several significant things in common: 

· These beliefs represent attempts to explain human behavior in terms of 

factors that precede the action: a universal human nature, past experiences, 

psychological forces, and social dynamics. In other words, all of these beliefs 

assume that the "essence" of a person, as defined by the factors identified 

previously, comes before the human actions and in fact causes these actions 

to take place. As a result, all of these beliefs about the human self have the 

effect of removing responsibility from the individual for his actions. If what you 

did was the direct result of human nature, past experiences, psychological 

forces, or social dynamics--then you cannot be held accountable. You didn't 

have a choice, your behavior was outside of your control. As a final conse- 

quence, these beliefs about the self limit future possibilities. If your thoughts, 

feelings, and actions are caused by forces beyond your control, then you do not 

have it in your power to change, to alter direction, to improve--any more than 

a puppet can decide to act independently and contrary to the wishes of the 

puppeteer. 

From a framework rooted in human freedom, these traditional perspectives 

regarding the nature of people can be dangerous and destructive. One of the most 

passionate and articulate modern exponents of individual freedom was Jean-Paul 

Sartre. His position is extreme--you are completely free. You create yourself entirely 

through the free choices that you make every day of your life. Though you may 

try to pretend otherwise, the reality is that you are the originator of your actions, 

the master of your fate and the captain of your soul, for better or for worse. You 

may choose to surrender control of your life to other individuals or organizations, 

but this is ultimately a free choice that you make and for which you are completely 

responsible. Let's revisit the examples identified previously and analyze them from 

this perspective.

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518 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

Free Choice: "I believe that people are free to choose their courses of action, and that 

they should be held responsible for the choices they make."

· The person who committed the armed robbery and murdered the guard freely 

chose to steal money and he is completely responsible. He was not compelled 

to act in this fashion: he could have chosen not to. 

· The person who embezzled money from the charitable organization which he 

headed freely chose to betray his trusted position out of greed and should be 

held fully accountable. 

· The heroic firefighter freely chose to overcome his natural fear of death and 

risk his life to save someone else's, and he should be awarded full credit for 

his heroism. 

· The child abuser freely chose to surrender to his destructive sexual impulses 

and he deserves to be condemned and fully punishrk 

tends to encourage passive, uncreative thinking. We are also influenced to think 

passively if our employer gives us detailed instructions for performing every task, 

instructions that permit no exception or deviation. On the other hand, when our 

employer gives us general areas of responsibility within which we are expected 

to make thoughtful and creative decisions, then we are being stimulated to think 

actively and independently.

BECOMING AN ACTIVE LEARNER 

Active thinking is one of the keys to effective learning. Each of us has our own 

knowledge framework that we use to make sense of the world, a framework that 

incorporates all that we have learned in our lives. When we learn something new, 

we have to find ways to integrate this new information or skill into our existing 

knowledge framework. For example, if one of your professors is presenting material 

on Sigmund Freud's concept of the unconscious or the role of Heisenberg's 

uncertainty principle in the theory of quantum mechanics, you need to find ways to 

relate these new ideas to things you already know in order to make this new infor- 

mation "your own." How do you do this? By actively using your mind to integrate 

new information into your existing knowledge framework, thereby expanding the 

framework to include this new information.

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Carefully Exploring Situations with Questions 57

For instance, when your professor provides a detailed analysis of Freud's 

concept of the unconscious, you use your mind to call up what you know about 

Freud's theory of personality and what you know of the concept of the unconscious. 

You then try to connect this new information to what you already know, integrat- 

ing it into your expanding knowledge framework. In a way, learning is analogous 

to the activity of eating: You ingest food (information) in one form, actively trans- 

form it through digestion (mental processing), and then integrate the result into the 

ongoing functioning of your body.

Carefully Exploring Situations with Questions 

Thinking critically involves actively using your thinking abilities to attack problems, 

meet challenges, and analyze issues. An important dimension of thinking actively 

is the ability to ask appropriate and penetrating questions. Active learners explore 

the learning situations they are involved in with questions that enable them to 

understand the material ed. 

· The infant-murdering teenagers freely chose to deal with their fear of having 

an unwanted child by killing it and trying to hide the body (despite having 

many other alternatives available), and they should be held fully responsible 

for their choice. 

· The philanthropic senior citizen freely chose to donate her money to 

improve educational opportunities for underprivileged young people rather 

than spending the money on herself, and she deserves to be praised for her 

altruism.

Each of these people had other alternatives available to them, and they could have 

made different choices--but they didn't. And so they must be held responsible for 

the choices that they did make. 

But surely, you might be thinking, I can't be held completely responsible for 

my life. After all, there are many factors outside of my control, people and forces 

that do create obstacles and undermine my efforts. And we are subject to pressures 

and influences from within ourselves: feelings of greed, fear of death, altruistic 

impulses, sexual compulsions, need for social acceptance, and so on. Still, it is up 

to us to freely choose which impulses, motivations, fears, and desires we want to 

act in accordance with. In other words, it is up to you, your "self." You make the 

ultimate choice regarding who you want to become and the direction of your life. 

When you look in the mirror, the person that you see reflected is the person you 

have created. If you are pleased with who you are and the state of your life, then 

you have every right to feel proud. On the other hand, if you are dissatisfied with 

the person you have become and disappointed with the course of your life, then you 

have to look no further than yourself to determine who is responsible. You must 

have the courage to accept full responsibility for your situation, but it is within your 

power to change, to improve yourself and your life through the free choices that 

you are able to make.

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Choose Freely 519

Sartre characterizes humans as the one living creature whose "existence" precedes 

its "essence." In other words, you create your "essence" (your self, soul, personality) 

through the free choices that you make in your daily "existence" as he explains: 

Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world--and defines 

himself afterwards. Man simply is--he is what he wills to be after that leap 

towards existence. Man is nothing else but that which he makes of himself. 

This is exactly what distinguishes human consciousness from the rest of the ani- 

mal kingdom: when confronted with a decision situation, we are able to think about 

the options available to us and then make a free choice based on our evaluation. And 

that makes us responsible for our actions, as Sartre explains: 

If existence is prior to essence, then man is responsible for what he is, it puts 

every person in possession of himself as he is, and places the entire responsibility 

for his existence squarely on his shoulders. 

In today's culture, personal freedom and responsibility are in danger of extinction, 

threatened by an array of psychological, sociological, and genetic explanations that 

have the cumulative effect of robbing people of their autonomy and dignity. It is 

refreshing and enlightening to view people through the lens of personal freedom, 

awarding them the power to make free choices for which they are responsible, 

rather than viewing them as victims of circumstance with little control over their 

destinies. George Bernard Shaw dismissed this "victimized" view of life when he 

stated, "I don't believe in circumstances. Rather than blaming their circumstances, 

the people who get on in this world create their own."

BECAUSE YOU ARE FREE . . . 

This discussion of freedom may seem abstract and theoretical to you, and you 

might be asking yourself: What difference do my beliefs about personal freedom 

make in my life? The truth is that along with your beliefs about morality and reli- 

gion, there is perhaps no other belief that has a greater impact on your life. Here 

are a few examples. 

Self-improvement: If you are a person who is constantly striving to improve 

yourself and the quality of your life, then it is essential that you possess the freedom 

to make different choices from those you have previously made. Personal freedom 

is the lifeblood of human change. By using your critical thinking abilities, you can 

identify appropriate goals and intelligent alternatives; by exercising your freedom, 

you can choose the goals and alternatives that best meet your needs and fulfill your 

ideals. On the other hand, an exclusive belief in one of the "non-freedom" theories 

(human nature, environmental determinism, etc.) undermines and even eliminates 

the possibility of changing yourself. The die has been cast, and whatever the future 

has in store for you, you cannot influence it in any meaningful way. 

Morality: Morality deals with the way we relate to people around us. Societies 

have developed moral ideals and prohibitions to help their citizens live together in a

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into their knowledge framework. In contrast, passive learners rarely ask questions. 

Instead, they try to absorb information like sponges, memorizing what is expected 

and then regurgitating what they memorized on tests and quizzes. 

Questions can be classified in terms of the ways that people organize and inter- 

pret information. We can identify six such categories of questions, a schema that 

was first suggested by the educator Benjamin Bloom: 

1. Fact 4. Synthesis 

2. Interpretation 5. Evaluation 

3. Analysis 6. Application 

Active learners are able to ask appropriate questions from all of these categories. 

These various types of questions are closely interrelated, and an effective thinker is 

able to use them in a productive relation to one another. These categories of ques- 

tions are also very general and at times overlap with one another. This means that 

a given question may fall into more than one of the six categories of questions. 

Following is a summary of the six categories of questions with some sample ques- 

tions for each category. 

1. Questions of Fact: Questions of fact seek to determine the basic information 

of a situation. These questions seek information that is relatively 

straightforward and objective. Who, what, when, where, how? Describe 

_________________________. 

2. Questions of Interpretation: Questions of interpretation seek to select and 

organize facts and ideas, discovering the relationships among them. Examples 

of such relationships include the following. 

Chronological relationships: What is the time sequence relating the following 

events . . . ______________________________________________________?

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58 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Process relationships: What are the steps in the process of growth or development 

in ________________________________________________________? 

Comparison/contrast relationships: relating things in terms of their similar/ 

different features. How would you compare and contrast _________________? 

Causal relationships: relating events in terms of the way some events are 

responsible for bringing about other events. What was the cause/effect of _______? 

3. Questions of Analysis: Questions of analysis seek to separate an entire pro- 

cess or situation into its component parts and to understand the relation of 

these parts to the whole. These questions attempt to classify various elements, 

outline component structures, articulate various possibilities, and clarify the 

reasoning being presented. 

What are the parts or features of _______? Classify according to ________. 

Outline/diagram/web _______. What evidence can you present to support 

_______? 

What are the possible alternatives for _______? Explain the reasons why you 

think _______. 

4. Questions of Synthesis: Questions of synthesis combine ideas to form a new 

whole or come to a conclusion, making inferences about future events, creat- 

ing solutions, and designing plans of action. 

What would you predict/infer from _______? What ideas can you add to 

___________? 

How would you create/design a new _______? What might happen if you com- 

bined _______ with _________? What solutions/decisions would you suggest 

for _____________? 

5. Questions of Evaluation: The aim of evaluation questions is to help us make 

informed judgments and decisions by determining the relative value, truth, or 

reliability of things. The process of evaluation involves identifying the criteria 

or standards we are using and then determining to what extent the things in 

common meet those standards. 

How would you evaluate ______________ and what standards would you use? 

Do you agree with ______________? Why or why not? 

How would you decide about _______? What criteria would you use to assess 

_______? 

6. Questions of Application: The aim of application questions is to help us take 

the knowledge or concepts we have gained in one situation and apply them to 

other situations. 

How is _______ an example of _______? How would you apply this rule/ 

principle to _______?

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Carefully Exploring Situations with Questions 59

Mastering these forms of questions and using them appropriately will serve as 

powerful tools in your learning process. 

Becoming an expert questioner is an ongoing project. When you are talking to 

people about tions require it. 

520 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Why Do People Make the Choices That They Do? 

There are many theories to explain why people do what they do: human nature, envi- 

ronmental influences, social pressures, unconscious motivation, chemical imbalances, 

and so on. Yet many people believe that humans are capable of making free choices 

and ought to be held responsible for their actions. What do you believe are the 

mainsprings of human action?

Flying / p Images 

/ g Vision/Jupiter 

y g Colours Ltd/Digital g 

y Gazette, Peter R. Barber 

AP Photo/The Daily

harmonious and productive fashion. As a result, most societies consider things like 

murder, robbery, cheating, stealing, and raping to be "wrong," and they have enacted 

laws and punishments to discourage antisocial behavior. On the other hand, most 

societies consider things like compassion, altruism, sharing in communal responsi- 

bilities, working for the good of everyone as well as yourself to be "right," and this 

sort of behavior is encouraged through teaching, exhortation, and example. But none 

of this makes any sense if you don't believe that people are free to choose among

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Choose Freely 521

different alternatives. If you believe that people are not free, that their actions are 

caused by genes, past conditioning, or uncontrollable impulses, then they cannot be 

held responsible for what they do, and there is little point in trying to encourage them 

to act differently. Without freedom, morality becomes irrelevant. People act the way 

they are programmed or compelled to act, and that's all there is. 

Religion: Most of the world's religions offer a path to an ultimate, spiritual 

transformation. And this spiritual transformation requires devotion to religious 

principles and practices so that people can achieve a higher spiritual state on earth 

and in life after death. even everyday topics, get in the habit of asking questions from all of the 

different categories. Similarly, when you are attending class, taking notes, or reading 

assignments, make a practice of asking--and trying to answer--appropriate questions. 

As children, we were natural questioners, but this questioning attitude was 

often discouraged when we entered the school system. Often we were given the 

message, in subtle and not so subtle ways, that "schools have the questions; your 

job is to learn the answers." The educator Neil Postman has said: "Children enter 

schools as question marks and they leave as periods." In order for us to become 

critical thinkers and effective learners, we have to become question marks again.

Thinking Activity 2.3 

ANALYZING A COMPLEX ISSUE 

Review the following decision-making situation (based on an incident that hap- 

pened in Springfield, Missouri), and then critically examine it by posing questions 

from each of the six categories we have considered in this section: 

1. Fact 4. Synthesis 

2. Interpretation 5. Evaluation 

3. Analysis 6. Application 

Imagine that you are a member of a student group at your college that has 

decided to stage the controversial play The Normal Heart by Larry Kramer. The 

play is based on the lives of real people and dramatizes their experiences in the 

early stages of the AIDS epidemic. It focuses on their efforts to publicize the horrific 

nature of this disease and to secure funding from a reluctant federal government to 

find a cure. The play is considered controversial because of its exclusive focus on the 

subject of AIDS, its explicit homosexual themes, and the large amount of profan- 

ity contained in the script. After lengthy discussion, however, your student group 

has decided that the educational and moral benefits of the play render it a valuable 

contribution to the life of the college. 

While the play is in rehearsal, a local politician seizes upon it as an issue and 

mounts a political and public relations campaign against it. She distributes selected 

excerpts of the play to newspapers, religious groups, and civic organizations. She 

also introduces a bill in the state legislature to withdraw state funding for the col- 

lege if the play is performed. The play creates a firestorm of controversy, replete 

with local and national news reports, editorials, and impassioned speeches for and 

against it. Everyone associated with the play is subjected to verbal harassment, 

threats, crank phone calls, and hate mail. The firestorm explodes when the house 

of one of the key spokespersons for the play is burned to the ground. The director 

and actors go into hiding for their safety, rehearsing in secret and moving from 

hotel to hotel.

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60 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Your student group has just convened to decide what course of action to take. 

Analyze the situation using the six types of questions listed previously and then 

conclude with your decision and the reasons that support your decision.

Thinking Independently 

Answer the following questions with yes, no, or not sure, based on what you believe 

to be true. 

1. Is the earth flat? 

2. Is there a God? 

3. Is abortion wrong? 

4. Have alien life forms visited the earth? 

5. Should men be the breadwinners and women the homemakers? 

Your responses to these questions reveal aspects of the way your mind works. How 

did you arrive at these conclusions? Your views on these and many other issues 

probably had their beginnings with your family. As we grow up, we learn how to 

think, feel, and behave in various situations. In addition to our parents, our "teach- 

ers" include our brothers and sisters, friends, religious leaders, schoolteachers, 

books, television, and the Internet. Most of what we learn we absorb without even 

being aware of the process. Many of your ideas about the issues raised in the pre- 

ceding questions were most likely shaped by the experiences you had growing up. 

As a result of our ongoing experiences, however, our minds--and our 

thinking--continue to mature. Instead of simply accepting the views of others, we 

use this standard to make our decisions: Are there good reasons or evidence that 

support this thinking? If there are good reasons, we can actively decide to adopt 

these ideas. If they do not make sense, we can modify or reject them. 

How do you know when you have examined and adopted ideas yourself instead 

of simply borrowing them from others? One indication of having thought through 

your ideas is being able to explain why you believe them, explaining the reasons that 

led you to these conclusions. 

For each of the views you expressed at the beginning of this section, explain 

how you arrived at it and give the reasons and evidence that you believe support it. 

EXAMPLE: Is the earth flat? 

EXPLANATION: I was taught by my parents and in school that the earth was 

round. 

REASONS/EVIDENCE: 

a. Authorities: My parents and teachers taught me this. 

b. References: I read about this in science textbooks. 

c. Factual evidence: I have seen a sequence of photographs takeBut if an individual is not free to choose--or not to choose-- 

a spiritual path, then most religions lose their logic and rationale. If your religious 

actions are completely conditioned by your upbringing or determined by other 

factors beyond your conscious control, then you can never achieve any spiritual 

enlightenment through your own efforts. And since enlightenment through self- 

choice is the main purpose of most religions, then they require that individuals 

have the ability to choose freely in determining their spiritual destiny. In the 

absence of freedom, religion becomes irrelevant. 

Social Improvement: It doesn't take a Nobel prize winner to see that we live 

in an imperfect world, saturated with poverty, discrimination, crime, substance 

abuse, addictions, war and strife, political repression, environmental pollution, 

child and spousal abuse, and so on. Many people want to create a better world, but 

to do so requires the ability to change the past and present by freely choosing to 

alter the future. But if freedom doesn't exist, then there is no point in even trying to 

solve social problems and improve society as a whole. Without the possibility of free 

choice, these problems are destined to take their own course, and all we can do is 

watch as passive spectators. On the other hand, if freedom does exist, then it is our 

responsibility to envision a better future and to make choices that will help make 

this future a reality. 

Raising Children: Whether or not you believe people are capable of free choice can 

make a dramatic difference in how you approach raising your children. If you believe 

that people are the product of their circumstances, then you will emphasize external 

forms of motivation like rewards and punishments; and if you believe that personali- 

ties are genetically constructed, you may minimize your involvement in the natural 

unfolding of who they are. However, if you believe that your children are capable of 

making free, independent choices, then you will work to educate them regarding the 

responsibility they have for directing their lives and the importance of thinking criti- 

cally about their alternatives. With free choice as a framework, you will seek to help 

them become reflective and principled individuals who make thoughtful decisions 

and accept the responsibility for their choices. In other words, you will want them to 

understand the nature of their freedom and to exercise its power wisely. 

Crime and Punishment: In recent years we have been subjected to a number of 

high-profile criminal trials, including those of the kidnappers of Elizabeth Smart 

and Jaycee Dugard; the 9/11 terrorists; Bernard Madoff (pled guilty before going 

to trial), and others. Every trial attempts to answer two basic questions: Did the 

accused person commit the crime he (or she) is charged with? Did he know what

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522 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

he was doing and make a free choice to do it? If the first question is answered 

"yes," then the second question becomes pivotal in evaluating a person's guilt and 

responsibility. But in order to hold people responsible for what they do, we have to 

believe that they are capable of making free choices. If people's behavior is caused by 

other factors, then they couldn't help what they did and it makes no sense to hold 

them responsible, anymore than we should hold a rabid raccoon or a trained pit- 

bull personally responsible for their attacks. These types of defenses are becoming 

increasingly prevalent. It used to be that the "insanity defense" was reserved for the 

most obviously deranged criminal defendants. More recently, however, this type of 

defense has spread like a virus. 

To sum up, whether or not you believe that people are capable of making free 

choices--independent of habit, past conditioning, genetic heritage, social pressure, 

psychological compulsions, and so on--will have a significant and far-reaching 

impact on the way you think and act toward yourself, others, and the world as a 

whole. The way you live your life is a direct reflection of your deepest held beliefs, 

and your understanding of freedom is one of the cornerstones of your Philosophy 

of Life. Having a clear and accurate understanding about your freedom of choice 

will enable you to create yourself as the kind of person you want to be, and to 

inspire the best in others as well. The German poet Rainer Maria Rilke wrote, "We 

are always becoming the self that we are." Your freedom gives you the power to 

discover and become your true, authentic self.

USING YOUR FREEDOM TO SHAPE YOUR LIFE 

Clearly, you are capable of making free choices. But how can you be sure? You 

are born with a genetic heritage that determines not just your gender, race, and 

physical characteristics, but influences your personality as well. For example, stud- 

ies of identical twins (thus possessing identical genetic "fingerprints") who were 

separated at birth and reared in different environments have revealed provocative 

(although complex) results. Years later, despite great differences in their experiences 

since birth, some twins have exhibited remarkable similarities: identical gestures 

and sense of humor; the same number (and even names) of children; similar careers 

and hobbies--all underscoring the influence of genetic factors. 

We know that the environment also plays a significant role in shaping people's 

characters and personalities. Young children are indeed like sponges, absorbing all 

of the information and influences around them and incorporating these elements 

into their thinking and behavior. Our attitudes, values, beliefs, interests, ways of 

relating to others--these and many other qualities are influenced by family, friends, 

and culture. This is the process by which positive values like empathy and commit- 

ment get transmitted from generation to generation, and it is also how negative 

beliefs like racism and violence are perpetuated. 

If our genetic heritage and environmental background are such powerful forces 

in molding who we are, how is it possible to think that we are capable of making 

free choices in any meaningful sense? The answer to this enigma lies in the nature of

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Choose Freely 523

thinking critically, which we have explored throughout this book, an approach that 

recognizes that despite the early influences on our development, our mind--and 

our thinking--continue to mature. Not only do you have ongoing experiences but 

you reflect on these experiences and learn from them. Instead of simply accepting 

the views of others, you gradually develop the ability to examine this thinking and 

to decide whether it makes sense to you and whether you should accept it. So while 

there are many beliefs that you might share with your parents or the prevailing 

culture in which you were raised, there are likely many other areas of disagreement. 

Although your parents might believe that sex should begin with marriage or that 

the most important thing about a career is job security, you might have gradually 

developed very different perspectives on these issues. 

The same is true of your personality. Although your genetic background and 

early experiences might have contributed to shaping the framework of your per- 

sonality, it is up to you to decide what your future self will be. For example, your 

personality may incorporate many positive qualities from your parents as well as 

some that you dislike--such as a quick temper. But you can decide not to let this 

temper dominate your personality or be expressed inappropriately. With sufficient 

determination, you can be successful in controlling and redirecting this temper, 

though there may be occasional lapses. In other words, you can take a personality 

tendency formed early in your development and reshape it according to your own 

personal goals. In the same way, if your early history created qualities of insecurity, 

shyness, pessimism, insensitivity, passivity, or other qualities that you are unhappy 

about, realize that these traits do not represent a life sentence! You have it within 

your power to remold yourself, creating yourself to n from outer 

space that show the earth as a globe.

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Thinking Independently 61

d. Personal experience: When I flew across the country, I could see the horizon 

line changing. 

Of course, not all reasons and evidence are equally strong or accurate. For 

example, before the fifteenth century some people believed that the earth was flat. 

This belief was supported by the following reasons and evidence. 

· Authorities: Educational and religious authorities taught people the earth was flat. 

· References: The written opinions of scientific experts supported the belief that 

the earth was flat. 

· Factual evidence: No person had ever circumnavigated the earth. 

· Personal experience: From a normal vantage point, the earth looks flat. 

Many considerations go into evaluating the strengths and accuracy of reasons 

and evidence. Let's examine some basic questions that critical thinkers automatically 

consider when evaluating reasons and evidence by completing Thinking Activity 2.4.

Thinking Activity 2.4 

EVALUATING YOUR BELIEFS 

Evaluate the strengths and accuracy of the reasons and evidence you identified to 

support your beliefs on the five issues by addressing questions such as the following. 

· Authorities: Are the authorities knowledgeable in this area? Are they reliable? Have 

they ever given inaccurate information? Do other authorities disagree with them? 

· References: What are the credentials of the authors? Are there other authors 

who disagree with their opinions? On what reasons and evidence do the 

authors base their opinions? 

· Factual evidence: What are the source and foundation of the evidence? Can the 

evidence be interpreted differently? Does the evidence support the conclusion? 

· Personal experience: What were the circumstances under which the experi- 

ences took place? Were distortions or mistakes in perception possible? Have 

other people had either similar or conflicting experiences? Are there other 

explanations for the experience? 

In critically evaluating beliefs, it makes sense to accept traditional beliefs if they 

enrich and sharpen our thinking. If they don't stand up to critical scrutiny, then we 

need to have the courage to think for ourselves, even if it means rejecting "conven- 

tional wisdom." 

Thinking for yourself doesn't always mean doing exactly what you want to; it 

may mean becoming aware of the social guidelines and expectations of a given situ- 

ation and then making an informed decision about what is in your best interests: 

for example, a dress code at the office where you work. Thinking for yourself often 

involves balancing your view of things against those of others, integrating ybe the kind of person that you 

wish and choose to be. This is the essence of freedom. Free choice means dealing with 

an existing situation, selecting from a limited number of options, and working to 

reshape the present into the future. 

Freedom does not, however, involve limitless and unconstrained options--this 

idea of freedom is a fantasy, not a realistic perspective. Freedom doesn't occur in 

a vacuum; it always involves concrete options and limited possibilities. In analyz- 

ing your personality, you may feel that you too often lack confidence and are beset 

with feelings of insecurity. In reviewing your personal history you may discover 

that these feelings stem in part from the fact that your parents were excessively 

critical and did not provide the kind of personal support that leads to a solid sense 

of security and self-worth. You might discover other factors in your history that 

contributed to these feelings as well: painful disappointments like having a mean- 

ingful romantic relationship break apart, or being fired from a job. All of these 

experiences will have influenced who you are, and these historical events cannot 

now be changed. But the significant question is: what are you going to do now? How 

are you going to respond to the results of these events as embodied in your current 

thinking and behavior? This is where free choice enters in. While you can't change 

what has previously happened, you can control how you respond to what happened. 

You can choose to let these historical influences continue to control your personal- 

ity, like specters long dead reaching from the grave to influence and entangle the

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524 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

present and future. Or you can choose to move beyond these historical influences, 

to choose a different path for yourself that transcends their influence and liberates 

your future. The psychiatrist Victor Frankl explains: 

Man is not fully conditioned and determined but rather determines himself 

whether he gives in to conditions or stands up to them. In other words, man 

is ultimately self-determining. Man does not simply exist but always decides 

what his existence will be, what he will become in the next moment. No matter 

what the circumstances we find ourselves, we always retain the last of human 

freedoms--the ability to choose one's attitude in a given set of circumstances. 

Of course change doesn't occur immediately. It took a long time for your per- 

sonality to evolve into its present state, and it's going to take a while for you to 

reconceptualize and redirect it. It's like changing the course of a large ship: you 

need to turn the rudder to change course, but the past momentum of the ship 

makes the turn a gradual process, not a radical change of direction. The same is 

true with the human personality; meaningful change is a complex process, but 

by choosing to set the rudder on a new course and maintaining its position, you 

will change.

ESCAPING FROM FREEDOM 

Given the power of freedom to create and transform people's lives, it would be 

logical to think that they would enthusiastically embrace their power to make free 

choices. Unfortunately, people are often not very logical. In fact, they often spend 

an extraordinary amount of time, thought, and energy actively trying to deny and 

escape from their freedom. Why? 

The short answer is responsibility, summed up in the clever Chinese prov- 

erb, "Success has a thousand fathers, but failure is an orphan." In other words, 

people are generally delighted to acknowledge their freedom when the results 

of their choices are successful, but shrink from responsibility when the result 

is failure. 

This panicked flight from responsibility is evident in every area of life. Think 

about life at your workplace. The credit for success generally moves up the hierar- 

chy, with people in the upper echelons congratulating themselves and enjoying the 

fruits of success. Although the people on the lower rungs might deserve the lion's 

share of the credit, their role is usually progressively diminished and eventually 

forgotten. In the case of failure, the process is exactly the reverse--blame tends to 

move down the hierarchy, ending up with the lowest possible fall guy. 

There has been an increasing trend in our society to evade responsibility in our 

society by becoming a victim. Becoming members of this "new culture of victimiza- 

tion" is attractive for many people because it confers on them the moral superiority of 

innocence and enables them to avoid taking responsibility for their own behavior-- 

not to mention the possibility of gaining financial awards through the legal system. 

One woman sued Disney World for the "emotional trauma" her daughter endured

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Choose Freely 525

when she inadvertently saw Mickey Mouse without his costume head. After spilling 

a cup of McDonald's coffee on her lap while driving a car, another person brought 

suit for the "psychological scars" that resulted--and received an award of $650,000. 

People are grasping for their tickets to fame and fortune, without regard to whether 

their behavior is ethically "right." 

Focusing attention on "deserving" victims such as battered wives, abused chil- 

dren, and casualties of crime is certainly commendable. But as the journalist John 

Taylor pointed out in his article, "Don't Blame Me!" the trend toward universal 

"victimology" (a new academic discipline!) has snowballed out of control. Thus, 

lifelong smokers are blaming cigarette companies for their own choice to smoke; 

vicious criminals blame their actions on oppressive social forces; the parade of 

social misfits on the morbidly voyeuristic afternoon talk shows blame everything 

except themselves for their plight; even participants in "refrigerator races" have 

sued manufacturers because the warning labels did not specifically warn against 

the dangers of racing with the mammoth appliances strapped to one's back! Fear 

of liability suits has resulted in the elimination of diving boards at public pools, 

the outlawing of sports like pole-vaulting at many schools, the exorbitant prices of 

equipment like football helmets, and the withdrawal of sponsors for Little League 

teams. Lawyers actively solicit and encourage such suits, buying police logs of 

accident and crime victims, and acquiring access to the registries of handicapped 

children in order to locate potential victims. In perhaps the last word on victimol- 

ogy, a New York man was mutilated after jumping in front of a subway, and then 

sued the City because the train had not stopped in time to avoid hitting him. He 

received an award of $650,000. 

All of this stems from the increasing sense of entitlement that people have 

developed: they have come to assume that they deserve to be personally fulfilled, 

financially prosperous, successful in their careers--and if they aren't, then they 

are being victimized by someone else who must be held accountable. They have 

become convinced that they are entitled not merely to the right of "life, liberty, 

and the pursuit of happiness," but to happiness itself. In fact, they have come to 

believe that they are entitled to a steadily increasing list of "rights,"--but without 

the responsibilities that typically accompany these rights, as Roger Connor, director 

of the American Alliance for Rights & Responsibilities, explains: "If you try to think 

where we went wrong, it was in delinking rights and responsibilities. People are fix- 

ated on their rights but have a shriveled sense of responsibility, so if they don't have 

what they want, they assume it must be someone else's fault." 

Looking outside one's self for explanations of misfortune is understandably 

seductive, but this attitude is ultimately disempowering, having the cumulative 

effect of stealing one's dignity, self-respect, and freedom. It is analogous to a pact 

with the devil, in which one's soul is progressively exchanged for the fleeting satis- 

faction of holding others responsible for the disappointments and mistakes in your 

life. But the converse is also true: fully accepting your personal responourself 

into social structures without sacrificing your independence or personal autonomy.

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62 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Viewing Situations from Different Perspectives 

Although it is important to think for yourself, others may have good ideas from 

which you can learn and benefit. Critical thinkers realize that their viewpoints are 

limited and that their perspective is only one of many. If we are going to learn and 

develop, we must try to understand and appreciate the viewpoints of others. For 

example, consider the following situation. 

Imagine that you have been employed at a new job for the past six months. 

Although you enjoy the challenge of your responsibilities and you are performing 

well, you find that you simply cannot complete all your work during office hours. 

To keep up, you have to work late, take work home, and even occasionally work on 

weekends. When you explain this to your employer, she says that, although she is

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Thinking Independently 

Leonardo da Vinci was an astonishingly independent thinker. For example, he depicted 

this idea of a helicopter centuries before anyone else conceived of it. But many 

people are not independent thinkers. What are the reasons that people too often get 

locked into passive, dependent ways of thinking? What strategies can we use to over- 

come these forces and think independently? Describe a time when you took an inde- 

pendent, and unpopular, stand on an issue. What was the experience like? 

Gianni Dagli Orti/Corbis

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Viewing Situations from Different Perspectives 63

sorry that the job interferes with your personal life, it has to be done. She suggests 

that you view these sacrifices as an investment in your sibility is per- 

sonally empowering, for you are seizing the freedom to shape your destiny through 

the choices that you make.

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526 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

Thinking Activity 12.2 

ESCAPING FROM MY FREEDOM 

Reflect on the choices that you make in your life and respond to the following 

questions: 

Identify areas in your life in which you consistently accept your freedom. Provide 

several specific examples. For example, describe situations in which you have 

sufficient confidence in yourself to say "I made a free choice and I am respon- 

sible for what happened." Identify areas in your life in which you seek to escape 

from your freedom and provide some examples. You can use your reluctance to 

fully accept responsibility for your choices (and their consequences) as a clue to 

"escape attempts."

INCREASE YOUR FREEDOM BY ELIMINATING CONSTRAINTS 

Freedom consists of making thoughtful choices that reflect your authentic self: your 

genuine desires and deepest values. But there are many forces that threaten to limit 

your freedom and even repress it altogether. The limits to your freedom can either 

come from outside yourself--external constraints--or they can come from within 

yourself--internal constraints. While external factors may limit your freedom--for 

example, being incarcerated or working in a dead-end job--the more challenging 

limits are imposed by yourself through internal constraints. For instance, people 

don't generally procrastinate, smoke, suffer anxiety attacks, feel depressed, or 

engage in destructive relationships because someone is coercing them. Instead, they 

are victimizing themselves in ways that they are often unaware of. 

In order to remove constraints, you first have to become aware that they exist. 

For example, if someone is manipulating you to think or feel a certain way, you 

can't begin to deal with the manipulation until you become aware that it exists. 

Similarly, you can't solve a personal problem like insecurity or emotional immatu- 

rity without first acknowledging that it is a problem, and then developing insight 

into the internal forces that are driving your behavior. Once you have achieved this 

future and that you should 

try to work more efficiently. She reminds you that there are many people who 

would be happy to have your position. 

1. Describe this situation from your employer's standpoint, identifying reasons 

that might support her views. 

2. Describe some different approaches that you and your employer might take to 

help resolve this situation. 

For most of the important issues and problems in your life, one viewpoint is 

simply not adequate to provide a full and satisfactory understanding. To increase 

and deepen your knowledge, you must seek other perspectives on the situations you 

are trying to understand. You can sometimes accomplish this by using your imagi- 

nation to visualize other viewpoints. Usually, however, you need to seek actively 

(and listen to) the viewpoints of others. It is often very difficult for people to see 

things from points of view other than their own, and if you are not careful, you can 

make the mistake of thinking that the way you see things is the way things really 

are. In addition to identifying with perspectives other than your own, you also 

have to work to understand the reasons that support these alternate viewpoints. 

This approach deepens your understanding of the issues and also stimulates you to 

evaluate critically your beliefs.

Thinking Activity 2.5 

ANALYZING A BELIEF FROM DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES 

Describe a belief of yours about which you feel very strongly. Then explain the reasons 

or experiences that led you to this belief. Next, describe a point of view that conflicts 

with your belief. Identify some of the reasons why someone might hold this belief.

A Belief That I Feel Strongly About 

I used to think that we should always try everything in our power to keep a person alive. 

But now I strongly believe that a person has a right to die in peace and with 

dignity. The reason why I believe this now is because of my father's illness and 

death. 

It all started on Christmas Day, December 25, when my father was admit- 

ted to the hospital. The doctors diagnosed his condition as a heart attack. 

Following this episode, he was readmitted and discharged from several differ- 

ent hospitals. On June 18, he was hospitalized for what was initially thought 

to be pneumonia but which turned out to be lung cancer. He began chemo- 

therapy treatments. When complications occurred, he had to be placed on a 

respirator. At first he couldn't speak or eat. But then they operated on him 

and placed the tube from the machine in his throat instead of his mouth. He 

was then able to eat and move his mouth. He underwent radiation therapy

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64 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

when they discovered he had three tumors in his head and that the cancer had 

spread all over his body. We had to sign a paper that asked us to indicate, if 

he should stop breathing, whether we would want the hospital to try to revive 

him or just let him go. 

We decided to let him go because the doctors couldn't guarantee that he 

wouldn't become brain-dead. At first they said that there was a forty percent 

chance that he would get off the machine. But instead of that happening, the 

percentage went down. It was hard seeing him like that since I was so close 

to him. But it was even harder when he didn't want to see me. He said that by 

seeing me suffer, his suffering was greater. So I had to cut down on seeing him. 

Everybody that visited him said that he had changed dramatically. They couldn't 

even recognize him. The last two days of his life were the worst. I prayed that 

God would relieve him of his misery. I had come very close to taking him off the 

machine in order for him not to suffer, but I didn't. Finally he passed away on 

November 22, with not the least bit of peace or dignity. The loss was great then 

and still is, but at least he's not suffering. That's why I believe that when people 

have terminal diseases with no hope of recovery, they shouldn't place them on 

machines to prolong their lives of suffering, but instead they should be permitted 

to die with as much peace and dignity as possible. 

Somebody else might believe very strongly that we should try everything in 

our power to keep people alive. It doesn't matter what kind of illness or disease 

the people have. What's important is that they are kept alive, especially if they are 

loved ones. Some people want to keep their loved ones alive with them as long as 

they can, even if it's by a machine. They also believe it is up to God and medical 

science to determine whether people should live or die. Sometimes doctors give 

them hope that their loved ones will recover, and many people wish for a miracle 

to happen. With these hopes and wishes in mind, they wait and try everything 

in order to prolong a life, even if the doctors tell them that there is nothing that 

can be done. 

Being open to new ideas and different viewpoints means being flexible 

enough to modify your ideas in the light of new information or better insight. 

Each of us has a tendency to cling to the beliefs we have been brought up 

with and the conclusions we have arrived at. If we are going to continue to 

grow and develop as thinkers, we have to modify our beliefs when evidence 

suggests that we should. As critical thinkers, we have to be open to receiving 

this new evidence and flexible enough to change and modify our ideas on the 

basis of it. 

In contrast to open and flexible thinking, uncritical thinking tends to be 

one-sided and close-minded. People who think this way are convinced that 

they alone see things as they really are and that everyone who disagrees with 

them is wrong. The words we use to describe this type of thinking include 

"subjective," "egocentric," and "dogmatic." It is very difficult for such people 

to step outside their own viewpoints in order to see things from other people's 

perspectives.

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Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reasons and Evidence 65

Thinking Activity 2.6 

WRITING FROM INTERACTIVE PERSPECTIVES* 

Think of a well-known person, either historical (e.g., Socrates) or contemporary 

(e.g., Oprah Winfrey), and identify different perspectives from which that person 

can be viewed. For example, consider viewing Oprah Winfrey as a(n): 

· pop culture icon. 

· black activist. 

· wealthy celebrity. 

· self-help guru. 

· actress. 

Next, select two perspectives from the ones you identified and, using research, 

provide an explanatory background for each perspective. Then, through investigative 

analysis, describe the interactive relationship between the two perspectives, the 

basis on which they interact and the ways in which each supports the other. 

Finally, in a summary conclusion to your findings, assess the significance of the two 

perspectives for contemporary thought.

Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reasons 

and Evidence 

When you are thinking critically, you can give sound and relevant reasons to 

back up your ideas. It is not enough simply to take a position on an issue or 

make a claim; we have to back up our views with other information that we feel 

supports our position. There is an important distinction as well as a relationship 

between what you believe and why you believe it. 

If someone questions why you see an issue the way you do, you probably respond 

by giving reasons or arguments you feel support your belief. For example, consider 

the issue of whether using a cell phone while driving should be prohibited. As a criti- 

cal thinker trying to make sense of this issue, you should attempt to identify not just 

the reasons that support your view but also the reasons that support other views. The 

following are reasons that support each view of this issue. 

Issue: 

Cell phone use while Cell phone use while 

driving should be prohibited. deeper level of understanding, you are then in a position to choose a different path 

for yourself, using appropriate decision-making and problem-solving approaches. 

But there is a great deal of ignorance and confusion regarding the nature of free 

choice. Let's examine some of the major myths.

Myth #1: Freedom Means Simply Making a Choice Many times we make choices 

that are not free because the choices are compelled by others. For example, if you 

external are threatened with bodily harm by a mugger or an abusive spouse, your choices 

constraints are made in response to these threats and clearly not free. Similarly, if you are being 

Limits to one's subjected to unreasonable pressure on the job by someone who has the power to 

freedom that fire you, the choices that you make are obviously constrained by the circumstances. 

come from These kinds of limitations on your freedom are known as external constraints, 

outside oneself 

because they are external influences that force you to choose under duress. While

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Choose Freely 527

hostage tapes, ransom payments, and blackmail threats are extreme examples of 

this sort of coercion, there are many incipient forms of it as well. The appeal to 

fear used by political leaders, the subtle manipulations of an acquaintance, the 

implied threat by a panhandler, the sexual harassment perpetrated by someone in 

authority--these and other instances are testimony to the prevalence of external 

constraints on your freedom. 

The way to free yourself from external constraints is to neutralize or remove 

them, so that you can make choices that reflect your genuine desires. For example, 

if your choices are constrained by an abusive spouse or an unreasonable boss, you 

either have to change their coercive behavior or you have to remove yourself from 

the situation in order to achieve genuine freedom. If you believe that your choices 

are excessively limited by the geographical location in which you live, you might 

have to move in order to increase your possibilities.

Myth #2: Freedom Is Limited to Choosing from Available Options This second myth 

about freedom interferes with people's capacity to make free choices because it 

encourages them to passively accept the alternatives presented to them. However, the 

most vigorous exercise of freedom involves actively creating alternatives that may not 

be on the original menu of options. This talent involves both thinking critically--by 

taking active initiatives--and thinking creatively--by generating unique possibilities. 

For example, if you are presented with a project at work, you should not restrict your- 

self to considering the conventional alternatives for meeting the goals, but should 

instead actively seek improved possibilities. If you are enmeshed in a problem situa- 

tion with someone else, you should not permit them to establish the alternatives from 

which to choose, but you should instead work to formulate new or modified ways of 

solving the problem. Too often people are content to sit back and let the situation 

define their choices instead of taking the initiative to shape the situation in their own 

way. Critical and creative thinkers view the world as a malleable environment that 

they have a responsibility to form and shape. This liberates them to exercise their 

freedom of choice to the fullest extent possible.

Myth #3: Freedom Means Simply "Doing What You Want" "No man is free who is a 

slave to himself." This saying captures the insight that while you may believe that 

you are making a free choice because you are not the victim of visible external 

constraints, your choice may indeed be unfree. How is this possible? Because your 

choice can be the result of internal constraints, irrational impulses that enslave internal 

you. Even though you may on one level be choosing what you "want," the "want" constraints 

itself does not express your truest self, your deepest desires and values. Consider Limits to one's 

freedom that 

the following examples: 

come from 

· You are addicted to cigarettes, and have been unable to quit despite many within oneself 

attempts. 

· You are consumed by jealousy and find yourself unable to break free of your 

obsession.

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528 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

· You can't go to bed without checking all of the locks three times. 

· Whenever you think about speaking in front of a group of people, you are 

paralyzed by anxiety and perform miserably. 

· You have frequent and lasting episodes of depression from which you are 

unable to rouse yourself and that sap your interest in doing anything. 

This is just a small sampling of common behaviors that are clearly "unfree," 

despite the fact that there are no external threats that are compelling people to 

make their choices. Instead, in these instances and countless others like them, 

the compulsions come from within the person, inhibiting them from making 

choices that originate from their genuine self. How can you tell if your choice 

originates from your genuine self or whether it is the result of an internal con- 

straint? There is no simple answer. You have to think critically about your situ- 

ation in order to understand it fully, but here are some questions to guide your 

reflective inquiry: 

· Do you feel that you are making a free, unconstrained choice and that you 

could easily "do otherwise" if you wanted to? Or do you feel that your choice 

is in some sense beyond your conscious control, that you are "in the grip of" 

a force that does not reflect your genuine self, a compulsion that has in some 

way "taken possession" of you? 

· Does your choice add positive qualities to your life: richness of experience, 

success, happiness? Or does your choice have negative results that undermine 

many of the positive goals that you are striving for? 

· If you are asked "why" you are making the choice, are you able to provide a 

persuasive, rational explanation? Or are you at a loss to explain why you are 

behaving this way, other than to say, "I can't help myself." 

Let's apply these criteria to an example like smoking cigarettes. 

· When people are addicted to cigarettes, they usually feel that they are not 

making a free, unconstrained choice to smoke because it is very difficult for 

them to stop smoking. Instead, they generally feel that they are enslaved by the 

habit, despite their numerous and determined attempts to quit. 

· Smoking cigarettes adds many negative elements to a person's life, includ- 

ing health risks to themselves and others near them, stained teeth, and bad 

breath. On the positive side, people cite reduced anxiety, suppressed appetite, 

and lessened social awkwardness. But smoking deals with only the symptoms 

of these problems, not the causes. On balance, the bottom line on smoking is 

clearly negative. 

· Most people who want to stop are at a loss to explain why they smoke, other 

than to say "I can't help myself." 

Using these criteria, habitual smoking clearly seems to be an example of an inter- 

nal constraint. Of course, while smoking might not be your concern, it is likely

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Choose Freely 529

that there are other elements of your life that are. While you might find it easy to 

advise, "Just say no!" to cigarettes, you might have great difficulty accepting this 

same simple advice when confronted with an urge for a chocolate eclair, a panicked 

feeling of insecurity, or a paralyzing fear of public speaking. 

Some internal constraints originate from the expectations of others which we 

have unconsciously "adopted" as our own. For example, someone in your life may 

demand exaggerated deference from you, and over time you may internalize this 

expectation to the point where you actually believe that you are freely choosing 

to exhibit this self-denying subjugation. But although you may have convinced 

yourself on a surface level, on a deeper level it is clear that you have surrendered 

your psychological freedom to the demands of someone else. That's one reason why 

people have difficulty in breaking out of abusive and destructive relationships: they 

don't view the relationships as abusive or destructive, and instead may believe that 

they have freely chosen to be where they are. 

This same psychological pattern repeats itself throughout your social life. It is in 

people's nature to want to be loved, accepted, and respected by others; to fit in with 

the larger social whole; and secure the rewards that others can provide. But though 

you may try to convince yourself otherwise, your choices in response to these pres- 

sures and needs are often not truly free because the impetus for these actions does 

not originate with you, it originates from outside yourself. The key variable is the 

extent of your self-awareness. Free choice demands that you are consciously aware 

of social pressures and expectations and that you consciously choose how to respond 

to them. This crucial awareness is often lacking, and so our behavior is the result 

of external manipulation rather than self-originated choice. The psychologist Erich 

Fromm provides penetrating insight into this complex phenomenon in his seminal 

work, Escape from Freedom: 

Most people are convinced that as long as they are not overtly forced to do 

something by an outside power, their decisions are theirs, and that if they want 

something, it is they who want it. But this is one of the great illusions we have 

about ourselves. A great number of our decisions are not really our own but are 

suggested to us from the outside; we have succeeded in persuading ourselves that 

it is we who have made the decision, whereas we have actually conformed with 

expectations of others, driven by the fear of isolation and by more direct threats 

to our life, freedom, and comfort.

Even though you may believe that you are making a genuinely free choice, the 

reality may be that you are making a "pseudo-choice" in response to internal or 

external constraintsdriving should be permitted. 

Supporting reasons: Supporting reasons:

1. Studies show that using cell 1. Many people feel that cell phones 

phones while driving increases are no more distracting than other 

accidents. common activities in cars. 

*This activity was developed by Frank Juszcyk.

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66 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

"You Leave--I Was Here First!" 

Critical thinkers actively try to view issues from different perspectives. Why would 

someone take the position "Let's get rid of illegal immigrants in America"? How 

would Native Americans view the person making that statement? What is your per- 

spective on illegal immigrants in this country? Why? 

© Steve Kelly/ The Times-Picayune

Now see if you can identify additional supporting reasons for each of these views 

on cell phone use while driving. 

Supporting reasons: Supporting reasons: 

2. 2. 

3. 3. 

4. 4.

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Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reasons and Evidence 67

Seeing all sides of an issue combines two critical-thinking abilities: 

· Viewing issues from different perspectives 

· Supporting diverse viewpoints with reasons and evidence 

Combining these two abilities enables you not only to understand other sides of an 

issue but also to understand why these views are held.

Thinking Activity 2.7 

ANALYZING DIFFERENT SIDES OF AN ISSUE 

For each of the following issues, identify reasons that support each side of the issue. 

Issue: 

1. Multiple-choice and true/false exams Multiple-choice and true/false exams 

should be given in college-level should not be given in college-level 

courses. courses. 

Issue: 

2. Immigration quotas should be Immigration quotas should be 

reduced. increased. 

Issue: 

3. The best way to deal with crime is Long prison sentences will not reduce 

to give long prison sentences. crime. 

Issue: 

4. When a couple divorces, the When a couple divorces, the court 

children should choose the parent should decide all custody issues 

with whom they wish to live. regarding the children.

Thinking Activity 2.8 

ANALYZING DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES 

Working to see different perspectives is crucial in helping you get a more complete 

understanding of the ideas being expressed in the passages you are reading. Read 

each of the following passages and then do the following: 

1. Identify the main idea of the passage. 

2. List the reasons that support the main idea. 

3. Develop another view of the main issue. 

4. List the reasons that support the other view.

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Visit your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com, for additional passages 

for analysis.

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68 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

1. In a letter that has stunned many leading fertility specialists, the acting head 

of their professional society's ethics committee says it is sometimes acceptable 

for couples to choose the sex of their children by selecting either male or 

female embryos and discarding the rest. The group, the American Society of 

Reproductive Medicine, establishes positions on ethical issues, and most clin- 

ics say they abide by them. One fertility specialist, Dr. Norbet Gleicher, whose 

group has nine centers and who had asked for the opinion, was quick to act 

on it. "We will offer it immediately," Dr. Gleicher said of the sex-selection 

method. "Frankly, we have a list of patients who asked for it." Couples would 

have to undergo in vitro fertilization, and then their embryos would be 

examined in the first few days when they consisted of just eight cells. Other 

leading fertility specialists said they were taken aback by the new letter and 

could hardly believe its message. "What's the next step?" asked Dr. William 

Schoolcraft. "As we learn more about genetics, do we reject kids who do not 

have superior intelligence or who don't have the right color hair or eyes?" 

(New York Times, September 28, 2001). 

2. When Dr. Hassan Abbass, a Veterans Affairs Department surgeon, and his 

wife arrived at the airport to leave for vacation last May 24, they were pulled 

aside and forced to submit to a careful search before boarding the plane. 

They became one of thousands of Americans of Middle Eastern heritage who 

have complained that a secretive and side-scale "profiling" system sponsored 

by the government and aimed at preventing air terrorism has caused them 

to be unfairly selected for extra scrutiny at airports. "Profiling" of this type 

is being used more frequently in many areas of law enforcement, raising 

fundamental questions of how a free society balances security fears with civil 

liberties and the desire to avoid offensive stereotyping (New York Times, 

August 11, 1997).

Discussing Ideas in an Organized Way 

Thinking critically often takes place in a social context. Although every person has 

his or her own perspective on the world, no single viewpoint is adequate for making 

sense of complex issues, situations, or even people. As we will see in the chapters 

ahead, we each have our own "lenses" through which we view the world--filters 

that shape, influence, and often distort the way we see things. The best way to 

expand our thinking and compensate for the bias that we all have is to be open to 

the viewpoints of others and willing to listen and to exchange ideas with them. This 

process of give and take, of advancing our views and considering those of others, is 

known as discussion. When we participate in a discussion, we are not simply talk- 

ing; we are exchanging and exploring our ideas in an organized way. 

Unfortunately, our conversations with other people about important topics 

are too often not productive exchanges. They often degenerate into name calling, 

shouting matches, or worse. Consider the following dialogue.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the r. And because you are unaware of the influences that are acting 

upon your behavior, you are living the illusion of the puppet who does not see the 

strings controlling his every movement. 

While everybody engages in some pseudo-thinking and pseudo-choosing, the 

crucial question is to what extent. If you are a person who reflects, reasons, and 

thinks critically about your beliefs and your choices, then you will be a predomi- 

nantly "inner-directed" person who is the author of the majority of your thinking

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530 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

and choosing. On the other hand, if you are a person who spends comparatively 

little time thinking critically about your beliefs and choices, then you will be a 

much more "other-directed" person who is defined in terms of the expectations 

of others or inner demons over which you have little control. Genuine freedom 

requires the will and the capacity to reflect, reason, and think critically about 

our "self," and in the absence of these abilities, we are in danger of becoming a 

"pseudo self."

Thinking Activity 12.3 

WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS TO MY FREEDOM? 

Making full use of your freedom involves first eliminating the constraints that limit 

your freedom. Here's a useful approach to beginning this process: 

1. Identify some of the important external constraints, limitations on your 

options that are imposed by people or circumstances outside of you. Are there 

people in your life that actively seek to limit your freedom? Are you locked 

into situations that present limited opportunities? After identifying some of 

the significant external constraints, identify ways to diminish their impact on 

your freedom by either modifying or eliminating them. 

2. Evaluate the extent to which you are passively content to choose from a limited 

selection of alternatives that are presented to you. Identify several situations to 

begin actively creating your own possibilities. 

3. Identify some of the important internal constraints in your life using the fol- 

lowing criteria to identify behaviors that 

· you feel are out of your conscious control 

· add negative results to your life 

· you cannot provide a rational explanation for 

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Discussing Ideas in an Organized Way 69

PERSON A: A friend of mine sent a humorous email in which he wrote about "killing 

the president." He wasn't serious, of course, but two days later the FBI showed 

up on his doorstep! This is no longer a free society--it's a fascist regime! 

PERSON B: Your friend's an idiot and unpatriotic as well. You don't kid about killing the 

president. Your friend is lucky he didn't wind up in jail, where he deserves to be! 

PERSON A: Since when is kidding around treason? With the way our freedoms are 

being stolen, we might as well be living in a dictatorship! 

PERSON B: Your friend isn't the only idiot--you're an idiot, too! You don't deserve 

to live in America. It's attitudes like yours that make terrorist attacks possible, 

like those against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. 

PERSON A: You're calling me a terrorist? I can't talk to a fascist like you! 

PERSON B: And I can't talk to an unpatriotic traitor like you. America: Love it or 

leave it! Good-bye and good riddance! 

If we examine the dynamics of this dialogue, we can see that the two people here 

are not really 

· listening to each other. 

· supporting their views with reasons and evidence. 

· responding to the points being made. 

· asking--and trying to answer--important questions. 

· trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument. 

In short, the people in this exchange are not discussing their views; they are 

simply expressing them, and each is trying to influence the other person into agree- 

ing. Contrast this first dialogue with the following one. Although it begins the same 

way, it quickly takes a much different direction. 

PERSON A: A friend of mine sent a humorous email in which he wrote about "killing 

the president." He wasn't serious, of course, but two days later the FBI showed 

up on his doorstep! This is no longer a free society--it's a fascist regime! 

PERSON B: Your friend's an idiot and unpatriotic as well. You don't kid about killing the 

president. Your friend is lucky he didn't wind up in jail, where he deserves to be! 

PERSON A: Since when is kidding around treason? With the way our freedoms are 

being stolen, we're living in a repressive dictatorship! 

PERSON B: Don't you think it's inappropriate to be talking about killing the presi- 

dent, even if you are kidding? And why do you think we're living in a repressive 

dictatorship? 

PERSON A: Well, you're probably right that emailing a message like this isn't very 

intelligent, particularly considering the leaders who have been assassinated--John 

Kennedy, Robert Kennedy, and Martin Luther King, for example--and the terrorist 

attacks that we have suffered. But the only way FBI agents could have known about 

the email is if they are monitoring our private emails on an ongoing basis. Doesn't

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party your freedom is so often limited by internal 

and external constraints, this diminishes your responsibility, since these seem to be 

factors beyond your control. However, this is not the case. You are still responsible. 

Why? Because the constraints you find yourself burdened with are typically the 

result of choices that you previously made. For example, although you may now 

feel under the spell of some drug or in an emotionally and/or physically abusive 

relationship, the fact is that your enslavement took place over time. You may now 

feel that you are trapped and can't even envision different possibilities. Yet your 

situation didn't happen overnight; it is the result of a long series of choices that you 

have made. It's similar to thread being slowly wrapped around your hands, binding 

them together. In the early stages, it is easy for you to break free, but if no action is 

taken, it gradually reaches the point at which you cannot extricate yourself without 

outside help. Still, it is within your power to choose to seek such assistance. And so 

you are responsible for what occurs.

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Deciding on a Career 531

But what about situations like recurring depression, phobias, emotional insecu- 

rity, and other paralyzing and debilitating psychological problems? Should people 

be held responsible for these circumstances as well? While we have "progressed" 

to medicating almost every symptom, especially in the psychological realm, we 

need to step back and view the role of thinking in these emotional disturbances, 

as we are often unwittingly complicitous in perpetuating and even strengthening 

them through our thinking and choices. Of course, in the case of serious, chronic, 

long-term emotional disturbances, professional therapeutic help is essential. But in 

the case of the more common disturbances that keep us from fulfilling our human 

potential, we can often work our way out of the thickets of these kinds of difficulties 

if we think clearly and choose freely. (To determine how free you are, take the "How 

Free Am I?" assessment in the appendix that starts on p. 548.)

Deciding on a Career 

Work is a search for daily meaning as well as daily bread, for recognition as 

well as cash . . . in short, for a life rather than a Monday through Friday sort 

of dying. 

--Studs Terkel, Working 

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70 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

that concern you? It's like Big Brother is watching our every move and pouncing 

when we do something they think is wrong. 

PERSON B: You're making a good point. It is a little unnerving to realize that our 

private conversations on the Internet may be monitored by the government. 

But doesn't it have to take measures like this in order to ensure we're safe? After 

all, remember the catastrophic attacks that destroyed the World Trade towers 

and part of the Pentagon, and the Oklahoma City bombing. If the government 

has to play the role of Big Brother to make sure we're safe, I think it's worth it. 

PERSON A: I see what you're saying. But I think that the government has a tendency 

to go overboard if it's not held in check. Just consider the gigantic file the FBI 

compiled on Martin Luther King and other peaceful leaders, based on illegal 

wiretaps and covert surveillance. 

PERSON B: I certainly don't agree with those types of activities against peaceful 

citizens. But what about people who are genuine threats? Don't we have to let 

the government do whatever's necessary to identify and arrest them? After all, 

threatening to kill the president is like telling airport personnel that you have 

a bomb in your suitcase--it's not funny, even if you're not serious. 

PERSON A: You're right: It's important for the government to do what's necessary 

to make sure we're as safe as possible from terrorist threats. But we can't give it 

a blank check to read our email, tap our phones, and infringe on our personal 

freedoms in other ways. After all, it's those freedoms that make America what it is. 

PERSON B: Yes, I guess the goal is to strike the right balance between security and 

personal freedoms. How do we do that? 

PERSON A: That's a very complicated question. Let's keep talking about it. Right now, 

though, I better get to class before my professor sends Big Brother to look for me!

Naturally, discussions are not always quite this organized and direct. 

Nevertheless, this second dialogue does provide a good model for what can take 

place in our everyday lives when we carefully explore an issue or a situation with 

someone else. Let us take a closer look at this discussion process.

LISTENING CAREFULLY 

Revietion is 

fun to contemplate because life is an adventure, and the future is unlimited. 

However, now that you are "grown up," this question may elicit more anxiety 

than enjoyment. "What am I going to be?" "Who am I going to be?" Enrolling 

in college is certainly an intelligent beginning. The majority of professional 

careers require a college education, and the investment is certainly worthwhile 

in monetary terms. But having entered college, many students react by asking, 

"Now what?" 

Perhaps you entered college right out of high school, or perhaps you are return- 

ing to college after raising a family, working in a variety of jobs, or serving in the 

armed forces. The question is the same: "What is the right decision to make about 

your career future?" Some people have no idea how to answer this question; others 

have a general idea about a possible career (or careers) but aren't sure exactly which 

career they want or precisely how to achieve their career goals. Even if you feel sure 

about your choice, it makes sense to engage in some serious career exploration to 

ensure that you fully understand your interests and abilities as well as the full range 

of career choices that match your talents. 

Most college students will change their majors a number of times before 

graduating. Although many students are concerned that these changes reveal 

instability and confusion, in most cases they are a healthy sign. They suggest that 

the students are actively engaged in the process of career exploration: consider- 

ing possible choices, trying them out, and revising their thinking to try another 

possibility. Often we learn as much from discovering what we don't want as 

from what we do want. The student who plans to become a veterinarian may end

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532 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

up concluding, "I never want to see a sick animal the rest of my life," as one of 

my students confided after completing a three-month internship at a veterinary 

hospital. 

The best place to begin an intelligent analysis of your career future is by com- 

pleting a review of what you already know about your career orientation. Your 

personal history contains clues regarding which career directions are most appro- 

priate for you. By examining the careers you have considered in your life, and 

by analyzing the reasons that have motivated your career choices, you can begin 

creating a picture of yourself that will help you define a fulfilling future. With these 

considerations in mind, complete the following activity as a way to begin creating 

your own individual "career portrait." Start by describing two careers that you 

have considered for yourself in the past few years along with the reason(s) for your 

choices, and then complete Thinking Activity 12.4.

Thinking Activity 12.4 

THINKING ABOUT YOUR CAREER PLANS 

Describe in a two-page paper your current thoughts and feelings about your career 

plans. Be very honest, and include the following: 

1. A specific description of the career(s) you think you might enjoy 

2. A description of the history of this choice(s) and the reasons why you think 

you would enjoy it (them) 

3. The doubts, fears, and uncertainties you have concerning your choice(s) 

4. The problems you will have to solve and the challenges you will have to 

overcome in order to achieve your career goal

THINKING ERRORS IN CAREER DECISIONS 

Too often, people choose careers for the wrong reasons, including the following: 

· They consider only those job opportunities with which they are familiar and 

fail to discover countless other career possibilities. 

· They focus on certain elements--such as salary or job security--while ignoring 

others--like job satisfaction or opportunities for advancement. 

· They choose careers because of pressure from family or peers rather than 

selecting careers that they really want. 

· They drift into jobs by accident or circumstance and never reevaluate their options. 

· They fail to understand fully their abilities and long-term interests, and what 

careers will match these. 

· They don't pursue their "dream jobs" because they are afraid that they will 

not succeed.

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Deciding on a Career 533

· They are reluctant to give up their current unsatisfactory job for more promis- 

ing possibilities because of the risk and sacrifice involved. 

Whatever the reasons, the sad fact is that too many people wind up with dead- 

end, unsatisfying jobs that seem more like lifetime prison sentences than their 

"field of dreams." However, such depressing outcomes are not inevitable. This text 

is designed to help you develop the thinking abilities, knowledge, and insight you 

will need to achieve the appropriate career.

CREATING YOUR DREAM JOB 

One of the powerful thinking abilitw the second dialogue and notice how each person in the discussion listens 

carefully to what the other person is saying and then tries to comment directly on 

what has just been said. When you are working hard at listening to others, you are 

trying to understand the point they are making and the reasons for it. This enables 

you to imagine yourself in their position and see things as they see them. Listening 

in this way often brings new ideas and different ways of viewing the situation to 

your attention that might never have occurred to you. An effective dialogue in this 

sense is like a game of tennis--you hit the ball to me, I return the ball to you, you 

return my return, and so on. The "ball" the discussants keep hitting back and forth 

is the subject they are gradually analyzing and exploring.

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Discussing Ideas in an Organized Way 71

SUPPORTING VIEWS WITH REASONS AND EVIDENCE 

Critical thinkers support their points of view with evidence and reasons and also develop 

an in-depth understanding of the evidence and reasons that support other viewpoints. 

Review the second dialogue and identify some of the reasons used by the participants 

to support their points of view. For example, Person B expresses the view that the 

government may have to be proactive in terms of identifying terrorists and ensuring 

our security, citing as a reason the horrific consequences of terrorist attacks. Person A 

responds with the concern that the government sometimes goes overboard in situations 

like this, citing as a reason the FBI's extensive surveillance of Martin Luther King.

RESPONDING TO THE POINTS BEING MADE 

When people engage in effective dialogue, they listen carefully to the people speak- 

ing and then respond directly to the points being made instead of simply trying to 

make their own points. In the second dialogue, Person B responds to Person A's 

concern that "Big Brother is watching our every move" with the acknowledgment 

that "It is a little unnerving to realize that our private conversations on the Internet 

may be monitored by the government" and also with the question "But doesn't it 

have to take measures like this in order to ensure we're safe?" When you respond 

directly to other people's views, and they to yours, you extend and deepen the 

explorations into the issues, creating an ongoing, interactive discussion. Although 

people involved in the discussion may not ultimately agree, they should develop a 

more insightful understanding of the important issues and a greater appreciation of 

other viewpoints.

ASKING QUESTIONS 

Asking questions is one of the driving forces in your discussions with others. 

You can explore a subject first by raising important questions and then by trying 

to answer them together. This questioning process gradually reveals the various 

reasons and evidence that support each of the different viewpoints involved. For 

example, although the two dialogues begin the same way, the second dialogue 

moves in a completely different direction from that of the first when Person B 

poses the question "[W]hy do you think we're living in a repressive dictatorship?" 

Asking this question directs the discussion toward a mutual exploration of the 

issues and away from angry confrontation. Identify some of the other key ques- 

tions that are posed in the dialogue. 

A guide to the various types of questions that can be posed in exploring issues 

and situations begins on page 57 of this chapter.

INCREASING UNDERSTANDING 

When we discuss subjects with others, we often begin by disagreeing. In an effective 

discussion, however, our main purpose should be to develop our understanding-- 

not to prove ourselves right at any cost. If we are determined to prove that we are

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72 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

Complex Issues, Challenging Images 

An American border patrol agent near Laredo, Texas, leads illegal immigrants from a 

mesquite forest. Immigrants who are caught illegally crossing the border between the 

United States and Mexico are often briefly detained and then sent back to Mexico. 

Others making the attempt to cross the border risk exploitation at the hands of "coy- 

otes," or immigrant smugglers; still more immigrants lose their lives to the extreme 

heat of the border climate. 

© AP Photo/John Moore

Describe what is happening in this photograph. How does this particular image 

convey a story, or narrative, about what it is like to attempt an illegal border 

crossing? Is the photograph completely objective, or does it inspire some sort of 

emotion or reaction in you? (The photograph was taken by a professional journal- 

ist.) If so, explain what that reaction is--and how this photograph could be used 

to illustrate a particular argument about (or perspective on) immigration.

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Editorial review has deemed that anyies you possess is the capacity to think imagi- 

natively. In order to discover the career that is right for you, it makes sense to use 

your imagination to create an image of the job that you believe would make you 

feel most fulfilled. Too often people settle for less than they have to because they 

don't believe they have any realistic chance to achieve their dreams. Using this 

self-defeating way of thinking almost guarantees failure in a career quest. Another 

thinking error occurs when people decide to pursue a career simply because it pays 

well, even though they have little interest in the work itself. This approach over- 

looks the fact that in order to be successful over a long period of time, you must be 

continually motivated--otherwise you may "run out of gas" when you most need 

it. Interestingly enough, when people pursue careers that reflect their true interests, 

their success often results in financial reward because of their talents and accom- 

plishments, even though money wasn't their main goal! 

So the place to begin your career quest is with your dreams, not with your 

fears. To get started, it's best to imagine an ideal job in as much detail as possible. 

Of course, any particular job is only one possibility within the field of your career 

choice. It is likely that you will have a number of different jobs as you pursue your 

career. However, your imagination works more effectively when conjuring up spe- 

cific images, rather than images in general. You can begin this exploratory process 

by completing Thinking Activity 12.5.

Thinking Activity 12.5 

DESCRIBING YOUR DREAM JOB 

Write a two-page description of your ideal job. Spend time letting your imagination 

conjure up a specific picture of your job, and don't let negative impulses ("I could 

never get a job like that!") interfere with your creative vision. Be sure to address 

each of the four dimensions of your ideal job: 

1. Physical setting and environment in which you would like to spend your 

working hours 

2. Types of activities and responsibilities you would like to spend your time 

performing

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534 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

3. Kinds of people you would like to be working with 

4. Personal goals and accomplishments you would like to achieve as part 

of your work

DISCOVERING WHO YOU ARE 

What career should you pursue? This is a daunting question and, as we have noted, 

one to which many people have difficulty finding the right answer. The best approach 

to discovering the "right" career depends on developing an in-depth understanding 

of who you are: your deep and abiding interests, and your unique talents. Each of us 

possesses an original combination of interests, abilities, and values that character- 

izes our personality. Discovering the appropriate goals for yourself involves becom- 

ing familiar with your unique qualities: the activities that interest you, the special 

abilities and potentials you have, and the values that define the things you consider 

to be most important. Once you have a reasonably clear sense of who you are and 

what you are capable of, you can then begin exploring those goals, from career paths 

to personal relationships, that are a good match for you. However, developing a 

clear sense of who you are is a challenging project and is one of the key goals of this 

text. Many people are still in the early stages of self-understanding, and this situa- 

tion makes identifying the appropriate career particularly difficult.

WHAT ARE YOUR INTERESTS? 

To live a life that will be stimulating and rewarding to you over the course of many 

years, you must choose a path that involves activities that you have a deep and 

abiding interest in performing. If you want to be a teacher, you should find helping 

people learn to be an inspiring and fulfilling activity. If you want to be an architect, 

you should find the process of creating designs, working with others, and solving 

construction problems to be personally challenging activities. When people achieve 

a close match between their natural interests and the activities that constitute a 

career, they are assured of living a life that will bring them joy and satisfaction. 

Although there is not necessarily a direct connection between interests and 

eventual career choice, carefully examining your interests should nevertheless 

provide you with valuable clues in discovering a major and a career that will bring 

lifelong satisfaction. In addition, thinking critically about your interests will help 

you to seek relationships that support and complement your goals and to select 

course work and a major that you will genuinely enjoy.

Thinking Activity 12.6 

IDENTIFYING YOUR INTERESTS 

1. Create a list of the interests in your life, describing each one as specifically as 

possible. Begin with the present and work backward as far as you can remem- 

ber, covering your areas of employment, education, and general activities.

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Discussing Ideas in an Organized Way 73

Army Pfc. Diego Rincon was killed in 

the Iraq War in 2003. Rincon, who 

was born in Columbia, was granted 

American citizenship status posthu- 

mously. Here, his father, Jorge Rincon, 

consoles Diego's girlfriend, Catherine 

Montemayor, following a news confer- 

ence announcing the conferring of 

citizenship.

What does this photograph imply 

about American immigration policies? 

Does it complement, or contradict, the 

story told in the photograph on the 

facing page? Think about the way this 

photograph is composed. What ele- 

ment has the photographer featured 

most prominently? How does the 

AP Photo/Rockdale Citizen, Dan Henry

composition of this photograph influ- 

ence your thoughts about the issue of 

immigration?

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74 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

right, then we are not likely to be open to the ideas of others and to viewpoints that 

differ from our own. A much more productive approach is for all of the individuals 

involved to acknowledge that they are trying to achieve a clear and well-supported 

understanding of the subject being discussed, wherever their mutual analysis 

leads them. 

Imagine that instead of ending, the second dialogue had continued for a while. 

Create responses that expand the exploration of the ideas being examined, and be 

sure to keep the guidelines for effective discussions in mind as you continue the 

dialogue. 

PERSON B: Yes, I guess the goal is to strike the right balance between security and 

personal freedoms. But how do we do that? (and so on)

Thinking Activity 2.9 

CREATING A DIALOGUE 

Select an important social issue and write a dialogue that analyzes the issue from 

two different perspectives. As you write your dialogue, keep in mind the qualities of 

effective discussion: listening carefully to the other person and trying to comment 

directly on what has been said, asking and trying to answer important questions 

Deciding on a Career 535

Make the list as comprehensive as you can, including as many interests as you 

can think of. (Don't worry about duplication.) Ask people who know you how 

they would describe your interests. 

2. Once you have created your list, classify the items into groups based on simi- 

larity. Don't worry if the same interest fits into more than one group. 

3. For each group you have created, identify possible careers that might be related 

to the interests described in the group. 

A student example follows:

Interest Group #1 

· I enjoy helping people solve their problems. 

· I am interested in subjects like hypnotism and mental therapy. 

· I have always been interested in the behavior of people. 

· I enjoy reading books on psychology. 

Possible Careers: clinical psychologist, occupational therapist, social worker, geron- 

tologist, behavioral scientist, community mental health worker, industrial psychologist

Interest Group #2 

· I am interested in developing websites, for myself and my friends. 

· I love blogging and have created one for the Honor Society at school. 

· I have always enjoyed playing virtual reality games like World of Warcraft. 

· I have built a number of applications for my iPhone that I have shared 

with others. 

Possible Careers: e-business consultant, website designer, blogger, programmer, 

applications analyst, technical support specialist

Interest Group #3 

· I am interested in the sciences, especially chemistry and anatomy. 

· I like going to hospitals and observing doctors and nurses at work. 

· When I was in high school, I always enjoyed biology and anatomy labs. 

· I am interested in hearing about people's illnesses and injuries. 

Possible Careers: doctor, nurse, physical therapist, paramedic, biomedical worker, 

chemical technician, mortician, medical laboratory technician

Interest Group #4 

· I enjoy going to museums and theaters. 

· I enjoy painting and drawing in my free time.

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536 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

· I enjoy listening to music: classical, jazz, and romantic. 

· I enjoy reading magazines like Vogue, Vanity Fair, and Vanidades. 

Possible Careers: actor, publicist, advertising executive, interior designer, fashion designer

WHAT ARE YOUR ABILITIES? 

In general, the activities that you have a sustained interest in over a period of time 

are activities that you are good at. This is another key question for you to address 

as you pursue your career explorations: "What are the special abilities and talents 

that I possess?" Each of us has a unique combination of special talents, and it is 

to our advantage to select majors and careers that utilize these natural abilities. 

Otherwise, we will find ourselves competing against people who do have natural 

abilities in that particular area. For example, think of those courses you have taken 

that seemed extremely difficult to you despite your strenuous efforts, while other 

students were successful with apparently much less effort (or, conversely, those 

courses that seemed easy for you while other students were struggling). There is a 

great deal of competition for desirable careers, and if we are to be successful, we 

need to be able to use our natural strengths. 

How do you identify your natural abilities? One productive approach to begin 

identifying your abilities is to examine important accomplishments in your life, a 

strategy described in Thinking Activity 12.7. In addition, there are career coun- 

selors, books, and computer software programs that can help you zero in on your 

areas of interest and strength. However, we sometimes possess unknown abilities 

that we simply haven't had the opportunity to discover and use. With this in mind, 

it makes sense for you to explore unfamiliar areas of experience to become aware 

of your full range of potential.

Thinking Activity 12.7 

IDENTIFYING YOUR ABILITIES 

1. Identify the ten most important accomplishments in your life. From this 

list of ten, select three accomplishments of which you are most proud. 

Typically, these will be experiences in which you faced a difficult challenge 

or a complex problem that you were able to overcome with commitment 

and talent. 

2. Compose a specific and detailed description (one to two pages) of each of 

these three accomplishments, paying particular attention to the skills and 

strategies you used to meet the challenge or solve the problem. 

3. After completing the descriptions, identify the abilities that you displayed in 

achieving your accomplishments. Then place them into groups, based on their 

similarity to one another. Here is how one student completed this activity:

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instead of simply trying to prove yourself right. 

After completing your dialogue, read it to the class (with a classmate as a 

partner). Analyze the class members' dialogues by using the criteria for effective 

discussions that we have examined.

ONLINE RESOURCES 

Visit your English CourseMate, accessed through CengageBrain.com, for sample student 

dialogues from Thinking Activity 2.9.

Reading Critically 

A crucial aspect of being an effective critical thinker in the world is learning to read 

critically. As a critical reader, you will analyze the text and evaluate its ideas and 

methods of presenting them. You will think of other subjects or issues to which 

the text might be connected. One of the most powerful tools in reading critically is 

asking the right questions.

ASKING QUESTIONS 

Asking questions will help you read critically. One set of useful questions is 

based on the basic components of writing: purpose, audience, subject, writer, and 

context.

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Reading Critically 75

· What is the purpose of the selection, and how is the author trying to 

achieve it? 

· Who is the intended audience, and what assumption is the writer making 

about it? 

· What is the subject of the selection, and how would you evaluate its cogency 

and reliability? 

· Who is the writer, and what perspective does she bring to the writing 

selection? 

· What is the larger context in which this selection appears? Is the writer 

responding to a particular event or participating in an ongoing debate?

The questions that we explored earlier in this chapter are often used to generate 

writing and can also help with critical reading.

Questions of Interpretation: Questions of interpretation probe for relationships 

among ideas. 

· Is a time sequence given in this text? If so, what is its importance? 

· Is a process of growth or development explained in this text? If so, what is 

its importance? 

· What is compared or contrasted in this text? What are the purposes of any 

comparisons? 

· What is the context of the selection, and what contextual components 

might be ional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 

Deciding on a Career 537

Accomplishments: 

1. Graduating from high school 6. Moving into my own apartment 

2. Getting my real estate license 7. Finding a job 

3. Succeeding at college 8. Getting my driver's license 

4. Owning a dog 9. Buying a car 

5. Winning a swim team 10. Learning to speak another 

championship language 

Accomplishment #1: Graduating from High School 

The first accomplishment I would like to describe was graduating from high school. I never 

thought I would do it. In the eleventh grade I became a truant. I only attended classes 

in my major, after which I would go home or hang out with friends. I was having a lot of 

problems with my parents and the guy I was dating, and I fell into a deep depression in 

the middle of the term. I decided to commit suicide by taking pills. I confided this to a 

friend, who went and told the principal. I was called out of class to the principal's office. 

He said he wanted to talk to me, and it seemed like we talked for hours. Suddenly my par- 

ents walked in with my guidance counselor, and they joined the discussion. We came to the 

conclusion that I would live with my aunt for two weeks, and I would also speak with the 

counselor once a day. If I didn't follow these rules they would place me in a group home. 

During those two weeks I did a lot of thinking. I didn't talk to anyone from my neighbor- 

hood. Through counseling I learned that no problems are worth taking your life. I joined a 

peer group in my school, which helped me a lot as well. I learned to express my feelings. 

It was very difficult to get back into my schedule in school, but my teachers' help made it 

easier. I committed myself to school and did very well, graduating the following year.

Abilities/Skills from Accomplishment #1: 

· I learned how to analyze and solve difficult problems in my life. 

· I learned how to understand and express my feelings. 

· I learned how to work with other people in order to help solve each other's 

problems. 

· I learned how to focus my attention and work with determination toward a goal. 

· I learned how to deal with feelings of depression and think positively about 

myself and my future.

FINDING THE RIGHT MATCH 

In Chapter 1 you learned how to use your thinking abilities to begin identifying 

your interests, abilities, and values. Discovering who you are is one part of identify- 

ing an appropriate career. The second part involves researching the careers that are 

available to determine which ones match your interests, abilities, and values. There 

are literally thousands of different careers, most of which you probably have only a 

vague notion about. How do you find out about them? There are a number of tools 

significant? (For example, the time of its writing, characteristics 

of that time, the relationship to other works by the same author, whether 

or not it is a translation) 

· Are causes discussed in this text? If so, what is suggested about those 

causes and their effects?

Questions of Analysis: Questions of analysis look at parts of a text and 

the relationship of those parts to the whole, and at the reasoning being 

presented. 

· Is this text divided into identifiable sections? What are they? Are sections 

arranged logically? 

· What evidence or examples support the ideas presented in the text? 

· Does the text give alternatives to the ideas presented?

Questions of Evaluation: Questions of evaluation establish the truth, reliability, 

applicability--the value of the text. They usually address the effectiveness of the 

writing as well. 

· What is the significance of the ideas in this text? 

· What is the apparent level of truth in this text? What criteria for truth 

does it meet? 

· What are the sources of information in this text? Are they reliable? Why? 

· Can the ideas in this text be applied to other situations?

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76 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

· What is effective about the writing in this text? Clarity? The right tone? 

Appropriate--or imaginative--word choices? Organization?

Of course, you are not likely to ask all these questions about everything you 

read, and you will find other questions to ask as well.

USING A PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH 

Successful readers often approach difficult reading passages with a problem-solving 

approach, similar to the method we will be exploring in Chapter 3. Here's how a 

critical thinker might apply this approach to reading a difficult work:

Step 1: What is the problem? What don't I understand about this passage? Are 

there terms or concepts that are unfamiliar? Are the logical connec- 

tions between the concepts confusing? Do some things just not make 

sense? 

Step 2: What are the alternatives? What are some possible meanings of the 

terms or concepts? What are some potential interpretations of the cen- 

tral meaning of this passage? 

Step 3: What is the evaluation of the possible alternatives? What are the "clues" 

at your disposal. To begin with, your college probably has a career resource center 

that likely contains many reference books, periodicals, DVDs, CDs, and software

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538 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

Thinking Critically About Visuals 

A Bad Hair Day? 

There are countless careers that people don't consider because they are unfamiliar. What 

unusual occupation do you think is depicted in this photo? What would you expect to 

be the educational background and training of this person? What are three of the most 

unusual careers you can think of? After sharing with the class, were you surprised at 

some of the unusual careers other students identified? Are any of interest to you? 

py g © Michael Newman/Photo 

Copyright / Edit

programs describing various occupations. Career counselors are also available 

either at your school or in your community. Speaking to people working in various 

careers is another valuable way to learn about what is really involved in a particular 

career. Work internships, summer jobs, and volunteer work are other avenues for 

learning about career possibilities and whether they might be right for you. 

As you begin your career explorations, don't lose sight of the fact that your 

career decisions will likely evolve over time, reflecting your growth as a person and 

the changing job market. Many people alter their career paths often, so you should 

avoid focusing too narrowly. Instead, concentrate on preparing for broad career 

areas and developing your general knowledge and abilities. For example, by learn- 

ing to think critically, solve problems, make intelligent decisions, and communicate 

effectively, you are developing the basic abilities needed in almost any career. As 

an "educated thinker," you will be able to respond quickly and successfully to the 

unplanned changes and unexpected opportunities that you will encounter as you 

in the passage, and what alternative meanings do they support? What 

reasons or evidence support these interpretations? 

Step 4: What is the solution? Judging from my evaluation and what I know of 

this subject, which interpretation is most likely? Why? 

Step 5: How well is the solution working? Does my interpretation still make 

sense as I continue my reading, or do I need to revise my conclusion?

Of course, expert readers go through this process very quickly, much faster 

than it takes to explain it. Although this approach may seem a little cumbersome at 

first, the more you use it, the more natural and efficient it will become. Let's begin 

by applying it to a sample passage. Carefully read the following passage from the 

French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre's "Existentialism Is Humanism," and use the 

problem-solving approach to determine the correct meanings of the italicized con- 

cepts and the overall meaning of the passage. 

Existentialism, of which I am a representative, declares with greater consistency 

that if God does not exist there is at least one being whose existence comes before 

its essence, a being which exists before it can be defined by any conception of it. 

That being is man or, as Heidegger has it, the human reality. What do we mean 

by saying that existence precedes essence? We mean that man first of all exists,

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Reading Critically 77

encounters himself, surges up in the world--and defines himself afterwards. If 

man as the existentialist sees himself as not definable, it is because to begin with he 

is nothing. He will not be anything until later, and then he will be what he makes 

of himself. Thus, there is no human nature, because there is no God to have a 

conception of it. Man simply is. Not that he is simply what he conceives himself to 

be, but he is what he wills, and as he conceives existence. Man is nothing else but 

that which he makes of himself. This is the first principle of existentialism. . . . If, 

however, it is true that existence is prior to essence, man is responsible for what he 

is. Thus, the first effect of existentialism is that it puts every man in possession of 

himself as he is, and places the entire responsibility for his existence squarely upon 

his own shoulders. follow--and create--the unfolding path of your life.

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Deciding on a Career 539

Thinking Critically About New Media 

Searching Online for the Right Career 

You can harness the power of the Internet as you search for the ideal position for 

yourself. Websites like CareerBuilder.com and Monster.com are websites devoted to 

facilitating the employment matchmaking process. You can browse the job postings at 

these sites and/or you can post your rèsumè for potential employers to search 

for. The Internet can also be incredibly helpful in researching potential careers, 

giving you the means to rapidly explore all dimensions of various careers and use this 

information to make informed choices about your future. Finally, once you 

have secured a job in your career you can use professional networking sites like 

LinkedIn.com to keep in touch with your network of colleagues. Of course, like any- 

thing on the Internet, you have to be careful about divulging important information 

about yourself, even on official job and career websites. The following brief passage, 

written by a member of CareerBuilder.com, provides six practical tips for ensuring 

your privacy online.

Seeking Employment Online--Is Fear a Factor? 

6 Tips to Protect Your Privacy 

Kate Lorenz

Does the thought of posting your resume online and exposing yourself to hundreds 

of thousands of Internet users give you white knuckles? If so, your fears are founded. 

According to the FBI, identity theft is the number one fraud perpetrated on the 

Internet. So how do job seekers protect themselves while continuing to circulate 

their resumes online? The key to a successful online job search is learning to manage 

the risks. Here are some tips for staying safe while conducting a job search on the 

Internet. 

1. Check for a privacy policy. If you are considering posting your resume online, 

make sure the job search site you are considering has a privacy policy, like 

CareerBuilder.com. The policy should spell out how your information will be used, 

stored, and whether or not it will be shared. You may want to think twice about 

posting your resume on a site that automatically shares your information with 

others. You could be opening yourself up for unwanted calls from solicitors. 

When reviewing the site's privacy policy, you'll be able to delete your resume 

just as easily as you posted it. You won't necessarily want your resume to remain 

out there on the Internet once you land a job. Remember, the longer your resume 

remains posted on a job board, the more exposure, both positive and not-so-positive, 

it will receive.

. . . That is what I mean when I say that man is condemned to 

be free. Condemned, because he did not create himself, yet is nevertheless at lib- 

erty, and from the moment that he is thrown into this world he is responsible for 

everything he does. . . . In life, a man commits himself, draws his own portrait and 

there is nothing but that portrait.

Thinking Activity 2.10 

A PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH TO READING

Step 1: What parts (if any) of this passage do you find confusing? 

Step 2: What are some possible definitions of the italicized words, and what are 

some potential interpretations of this passage? 

Existentialism: 

Existence precedes essence: 

Condemned to be free: 

Responsible for everything he does: 

Overall Meaning: 

Step 3: What contextual clues can you use to help you define these concepts 

and determine the overall meaning? What knowledge of this subject 

do you have, and how can this knowledge help you understand this 

passage? 

Step 4: Judging from your evaluation in Step 3, which of the possible definitions 

and interpretations do you think are most likely? Why? 

Step 5: How do your conclusions compare with those of the other students in the 

class? Should you revise your definitions or interpretation?

Select a challenging passage from a course textbook and apply the preceding 

problem-solving approach.

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78 Chapter 2 Thinking Critically

Thinking Critically About New Media 

Issues with Communication 

New media has created a rapidly expanding universe of possibilities, and with this 

expansion comes the need to expand one's critical thinking abilities to successfully navi- 

gate our way through unfamiliar terrain.

In this section we are going to briefly consider the way new media has affected our 

relationships with others. As is obvious, online communication has greatly expanded the 

frequency of our contact with others as well as the number of people with whom we are 

in touch. But with this ease of communication has come new challenges as well. For 

example, how many times have you regretted impulsively pressing the "send" button on 

a message written in the heat of the moment? For most of us, this is an all-too-frequent 

occurrence. As a rule of thumb, it's often a good idea to delay sending our composed 

message until we've had an opportunity to let things settle and review it with fresh 

vision. This goes for all important messages we send, profes (Continues)

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540 Chapter 12 Thinking Critically, Living Creatively

Thinking Critically About New Media 

(Continued) 

2. Take advantage of site features. Legitimate job search sites offer levels of privacy 

protection. Before posting your resume, carefully consider your job search objectives 

and the level of risk you are willing to assume. 

CareerBuilder.com, for example, offers three levels of privacy from which job 

seekers can choose. The first is standard posting. This option gives job seekers 

who post their resumes the most visibility to the broadest employer audience 

possible. 

The second is anonymous posting. This allows job seekers the same visibility 

as those in the standard posting category without any of their contact informa- 

tion being displayed. Job seekers who wish to remain anonymous but want to 

share some other information may choose which pieces of contact information to 

display. 

The third is private posting. This option allows job seekers to post their resumes 

without having it searched by employers. Private posting allows job seekers to 

quickly and easily apply for jobs that appear on CareerBuilder.com without retyping 

their information.

3. Safeguard your identity. Career experts say that one of the ways job seekers can 

stay safe while using the Internet to search out jobs is to conceal their identities. 

Replace your name on your resume with a generic identifier such as: 

Confidential Candidate 

Intranet Developer Candidate 

Confidential Resume: Experienced Marketing Representative 

You should also consider eliminating the name and location of your current employer. 

Depending on your title, it may not be all that difficult to determine who you are 

once the name of your company is provided. Use a general description of the com- 

pany such as: 

Major auto manufacturer 

International packaged goods supplier 

Confidential employer 

If your job title is unique, consider using the generic equivalent instead of thsional or otherwise. We can 

almost always improve the content and clarity of our message by giving ourselves time to 

think about it for a while. It's helpful to recognize also that emailing and text-messaging 

can sometimes encourage a weakening of our inhibitions or internal censors, emboldening 

us to write things that we would probably not say in person. Again, making a practice 

of revisiting our message before sending it will doubtless save us from those next-day 

"How could I?" moments. And finally, we should always remind ourselves that email and 

text-messages are usually stripped down to the essentials, lacking the rich context that is 

provided when we are speaking to someone. Without our tone of voice, body language, or 

detailed articulation, the words and tone are often ambiguous, a situation that can eas- 

ily lead to misunderstandings. Just because we know what we intend to say doesn't mean 

that the other person will interpret it in the same way. So when sending significant com- 

munications via new media the watchword is "Handle with care." Make the time and effort 

to say precisely what you intend in a way that leaves minimal chance that the recipient 

will take it any other way.

Analogously, social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace have opened up 

a Pandora's Box of trouble. These sites provide the unprecedented opportunity for 

individuals to create a "virtual self," building records of their social identities via 

descriptions, comments, photographs, and music. In addition to serving as powerful 

models of social communication, such public displays of private information play to 

the twin human impulses of showmanship and voyeurism. But problems arise when the 

"wrong" people visit our site and learn things about us we would never want them to 

know. For example, 30 percent of today's employers are using Facebook to check out

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Analyzing Issues 79

potential employees prior to hiring! There are a number of ways to protect yourself 

from embarrassment, whether it's an employer, your parent, or your romantic partner. 

To begin with, you can think carefully about what you post on the site and also exer- 

cise care in choosing whom you invite to have access. Too often items are posted or 

people are invited without any consideration of future consequences e exact 

title assigned by your employer.

4. Establish an email address for your search. Another way to protect your privacy 

while seeking employment online is to open up a mail account specifically for your 

online job search. This will safeguard your existing email box in the event some- 

one you don't know gets a hold of your email address and shares it with others.