Ch 1:

What is psychology? How is it studied?

The scientific study of behavior and mental process. It is multiply determined by scientific approach.

What is behavior? What is a mental process?

Observable action & Private experiences (not observable)

Who is credited as being the "father" of psychology? What did he do? What did he contribute?

Wilhelm Wundt, established lab in 1879, introspection

What are each of the modern approaches to psychology? Be able to identify the central characteristics of each (biological, behavioral, humanistic, etc.) Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Biological Approach: Neuroscience/Biopsychology, focuses on body, brain, and nervous system.
Behavioral Approach: Behaviorism, John Watson & B.F Skinner, Studies stimuli and responses.
Psychodynamic Approach: Freud's theory, Unconscious aspects, impulse, wishes, desires, and feelings. Rooted in childhood.
Humanistic Approach: Humanistic Psychology, free will, personal growth, find meaning in life. Personal responsibility and choice. Positive Psychology, Human flourishing, meaningful life.
Cognitive Approach: Cognitive Psychology, mental functions of learning, thinking, remembering. Mental process influencing behavior. Cognitive Behaviorism, experiences and environment effect how we behave. Information Processing, brain = computer. Cognitive Neuroscience, studies neural (brain, tissue, nerves) that underlie mental process.
Evolutionary Approach: Evolutionary Psychology, natural selections, evolution of behavior and mind. Adaptation.
Sociocultural Approach: Influence of social and culture environments on behavior.

What are the different subfields of psychology? Be able to recognize examples of each.

Not a clue. Sorry pal but your fucked on this one.

What is a scientific theory? What is a hypothesis?

Explanation of findings. Testable prediction.

What are the steps in the scientific process?

Observe, predict, test hypothesis, draw conclusion, evaluate conclusion, repeat.

What are variables? How are they defined in research? Why is it important to define them?

A characteristic that can vary. Operational Definition. Translates abstract into something measurable.

What does it mean for research to be descriptive?

Qualitative

What are the important components to conducting a survey? Know all related terminology and be able to recognize in examples.

Population: group of people. Sample: part of population. Representative sample: mirrors population of interest. Biased Sample: Doesn't reflect population. Random sample: equal chance selection of population.

What is the correlational method? Be able to determine strength and direction, as well as interpret meaning of a correlation coefficient.

Measure of association – describes how strongly 2 variables are related.
Positive Correlation: Same direction.
Negative Correlation: Opposite directions.
Zero Correlation: No association.
Perfect Correlation: One perfectly predicts another.

What is the experimental method? What are the essential characteristics?

Only method that can be used to identify cause-effect relationships. Random assignment & manipulation of the independent variable.

What are independent and dependent variables? Be able to recognize examples.

Independent: Factor manipulated and controlled by experimenter.
Dependent: Measure factor that is influenced by Independent variable.

What are experimental and control groups? Be able to recognize examples.

Experimental: Group exposed to manipulation of the independent V. Control: Identical to experimental group and isn't manipulated by IV.

What are some sources of bias in experiments? Be able to recognize examples. How can we control for these biases?

Confounding Variables, Selection bias, Placebo effect: placebo – harmless substance w/ no effect. Experimenter bias.

What are some important ethical considerations when conducting research?

APA: American Psychological Association. Informed consent: inform participants of risks, Freedom from Coercion: Must be volunteers for study, Confidentiality, Debriefing: Participants must be informed of actual nature of study afterwards.

Ch 2:

What are the different types of nerves? Be able to recognize examples.

Afferent: sensory neurons, relay messages from organs and receptors to brain and spinal cord.
Efferent: motor neurons, allows body to move. Conveys signals from central nervous system to glands and muscles.

What is a neuron? What are the parts of a neuron? How do neurons communicate?

Specialized nerve that conducts impulses through the nervous system, handles information processing. Incoming info, cell body, nucleus, axon, outgoing info, myelin sheath, terminal button, & to next neuron. Neurotransmitters.
Axon: carries signal away. Dendrite: carries signal towards.

What are neurotransmitters? What do they do (in general)? How do they travel? What are receptors? How do they work? Be able to recognize the major neurotransmitters and their functions.

Transmits messages between neurons. From cell body, down the axon, across the synapse to the dendrites of the next neuron. Protein molecules on the surfaces of dendrites and cell bodies that receive neurotransmitters.

What are the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and what do they do?

Somatic: Sensory nerves & motor nerves. Sense the environment and helps you move
Autonomic: No conscious control, transmits messages between CNS and the glands, heart, and other muscles. Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

What are the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

Symp: Mobilizes body's resources to prepare for action (flight or fight)
Parasymp: Brings heightened body functions back to normal.

What is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous system?

Central (CNS): Composed of brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral (PNS): Connects CNS to rest of body. Composed of Somatic & Autonomic Nervous System.

What is the endocrine system? How does it differ from the nervous system? What are the important glands?

Body communication glands that secrete hormones. Uses bloodstream (slower), and messages last longer.
Adrenal Gland: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine into bloodstream.
Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus; releases growth hormone, oxytocin
Master Gland: Directs other glands

What is the function of the spinal cord?

Extension of the brain. Transmits messages between brain and nerves controlling the body.

What is the function of the brainstem and its components?

Handles functions critical to physical survival. Medulla: controls heartbeat, breathing, BP, swallowing, and coughing. Pons: Relays motor messages between cerebellum and motor cortex.

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Critically important for the body to move smoothly/skilled. Coordination, part of hindbrain

Which structures make up the limbic system? What are their functions?

Thalamus: relay station for all info in the forebrain. Relays all senses except smell, affect verbal learning (language), regulates sleep cycle.
Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, sex drive, and emotions. Controls body temp, biological clock, and helps with motivation (pleasure and displeasure).
Amygdala: emotional response to unpleasant or punishing stimuli. Learning of fear responses. Damage impairs ability to recognize facial expressions and tones of voice associated with fear or anger.
Hippocampus: Central role in storing new memories, brain's internal representation of space. Helps us learn our way around an environment.

How is the cerebrum divided and what connects the divisions? What is the cerebral cortex?

Cerebrum is the largest structure of the brain and is divided into 2 sections (left and right). They are connected by the corpus callosum.

What is the cerebral cortex? What are the 4 lobes? What functions are located in each lobe? What would happen if there was damage? Be able to recognize examples.

Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of forebrain, responsible for higher brain functions and sensory processing.
Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Occipital Lobe, and Temporal Lobe.

Ch 3:

What are sensation and perception?

Sensation: Sensory receptors and NS receive and represent stimuli's from the environment.
Perception: Organizing and interpreting sensory info.

What are top-down and bottom-up processing? Be able to recognize examples.

Top-Down: interpretation of incoming stimuli is influenced by existing knowledge. Ex: wheel of fortune
Bottom-Up: Detects individual elements and combine them into one thing. Ex: Putting together a puzzle without looking at the box.

What is inattentional blindness? Why does it occur? Be able to recognize examples?

Failing to see visible objects when attention is elsewhere. When a strongly distinct stimulus suddenly gets our attention.

What is absolute threshold? Difference threshold? Sensory adaptation? Transduction? Be able to recognize examples.

Minimum stimulation needed to notice something. Sensitivity to a stimulus changes with exposure. Sensory systems encode stimulus energy as neural messages.

What is perceptual set? Be able to recognize examples

Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

What are the parts of the eye and what does each do? Know the order in which light is processed by the eye.

Cornea: Protects eye and bends light
Pupil: Small adjustable opening
Iris: Colored muscle
Lens: Makes incoming rays into image on eyes back surface
Retina: eyes back surface

What are rods and cones? What do they do?

Receptors in the retina
Rods: See black and white
Cones: Sees fine detail and color

What are feature detectors? What is parallel processing? Be able to recognize examples.

Neurons that respond to specific features of the scenes we are sensing

What are some ways in which we perceive form? Be able to recognize examples.

Heredity, needs, peer group, interests, and expectations all influence our perception.

How do we perceive depth? What are the binocular and monocular cues? Be able to recognize examples.

See objects in 3 dimensions.
Binocular: Two eye cues
Monocular: One eyed cues

What is perceptual adaptation? Be able to recognize examples.

Adapt when our sensations of the world are altered

What are size and shape constancy? Be able to recognize examples.

Size: See a constant size even when distance varies
Shape: See what we expect even when the image changes

How is hearing processed? Know the order in which vibrations are processed by the ear.

Audition. Outer ear send vibration to eardrum. Middle ear transmits that to the cochlea which them ripples tiny hairs that transmit it to the auditory nerve.

What is the olfactory system? How does it work? Be able to recognize examples.

We smell something due to molecules carrying it to the olfactory epithelium.

How is taste processed? What are the taste sensations? Be able to recognize examples.

Gustation: basic sensations; sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.
Taste receptor cells in moth detect different chemical tastes.

What affects our sense/perception of pain?

The brain and our expectations.

What are kinesthetic and vestibular senses? Be able to recognize examples.

Kinesthesis: Sense position and movement of body parts. Detected by receptors in joints, ligaments, and muscles.
Vestibular: Senses body movement, position, and balance.

Ch 4:

What is consciousness? What are some characteristics of consciousness?

Our self-awareness and awareness of environment. Awareness and Arousal.
Selective Attention: Awareness focuses on limited aspects.

What is circadian rhythm? What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus? What does it do? How does it work?

How our bodies synchronize with the 24hr cycle of day & night- somewhat linked to age.
Part of the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms. It secretes melatonin.

What are the different reasons why we sleep? Be able to recognize examples.

Protection (Circadian theory of sleep): Sleep when dark -survival-, sleep adaptive to predator/prey status and food requirements, allows energy conservation.
Restore and Repair (Restorative theory of sleep): Neurons can repair from toxins and body wear & tear is restored.
Memory: Restores and Rebuilds memories from the day, consolidate newly learned info in REM/slow-wave sleep
Creativity and Learning: Cognitive functions are stronger w/ sleep
Growth: Growth hormones are released during sleep.

What are the different stages of sleep? How many are there? How long is a typical sleep cycle? Be able to recognize examples.

Stage N1: Hypnogogic state – The period of drifting from wakefulness into sleep. Feels like falling or floating.
Stage N2: Somewhat deeper level of sleep, lasts 20min. Can sleep talk and is woken easily.
Stage N3: Beginning of slow-wave sleep (deep sleep). Hard to waken, children wet bed/ sleep walk.
Stage R: Occurs after 1hr sleep, makes up 20% of sleep. Heart rate rises, eyes dart, rapid breath, can experience sleep paralysis, hard to wake, dreams occur.
90 Minutes

What is REM sleep, why do we need it and how much of our sleep does it make up?

20% of sleep
(see prev question)

What are the effects of sleep deprivation? What is REM rebound? Be able to recognize examples.

Changes behavior; increased REM sleep after deprivation – nightmares common

What are the different types of sleep disorders? Be able to recognize examples.

Insomnia: sleeping less than one wishes
Sleep-Onset: Can't fall asleep when wants to
Early Awakening Insomnia: Waking up too early several times during night. Most common disorder.
Sleep Apnea: Sudden, temporary interruption of breathing. Lasts longer than 20sec, happens 4-500 times a night, common in overweight & older adults.
Narcolepsy: Rare disorder. Effects 1%, serious impact, person unexpectedly falls asleep during any activity/event. Can experience cataplexy – sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions.
REM-Sleep Behavior: No sleep paralysis during REM sleep. May act out dreams, can injure self or partner.
Sleep Walking/Talking
Nightmares: Bad dream
Night Terrors: Wakes up in panic.

What are parasomnias? What is the difference between nightmares and night terrors? Be able to recognize examples.

Nightmares are just bad dreams; Night Terrors have you up in a panic, terrified with you remembering little of the dream.

What are the different types of dreams? What are the different theories that explain dreams? Be able to recognize examples.

Daydreams, Lucid Dreams, REM Dreams: vivid & emotional, story like, Non-REM Dreams: less frequent and un-memorable.
Freudian Theory of Dreaming: Main purpose is wish fulfillment.
Manifest Content – Story-line, what we remember
Latent Content – Underlying meaning of the dream
Cognitive Theory of Dreaming: We can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind
Problem-Solving Theory of Dreaming
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreaming happens when cortex synthesizes neural signals from lower part of brain. The brains attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep.

Know the terminology associated with drug use. Be able to recognize examples.

Agonist: Increases the activity of a neurotransmitter
Antagonist: Inhibits or decreases the activity of a neurotransmitter
Tolerance
Withdrawal
Physical Dependance: Physiological need for the drug, shows withdrawal symptoms with discontinued use.
Psychological Dependance: Physiological need for the drug to relive negative emotions.
Addiction: Drug craving and use despite consequences.

What are the different classifications of drugs, the drugs that belong in each classification, and their effects? Be able to recognize examples.

Psychoactive Drugs: Chemicals that change our perceptions and moods. (Ex: Depressants, Stimulants, and Hallucinogens)
Depressants – Alcohol: Increases GABA, sedating effect, increases dopamine, lowers inhibitions, disrupts long-term memory processing, focuses attention on the immediate and away from future consequences.
Barbiturates & Benzodiazepines: Increases GABA, decreases nervous system activity, induces sleep, reduces anxiety, addictive, tolerance may build, can be physically dependent, lethal if combined with other depressants.
Opiates: Morphine & Heroin, leads to pain relief and feeling good, increases dopamine, depress neural functioning, pupils contract, breathing slows, easy to become physically dependent.
Stimulants – Temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions. Types: Amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, ecstasy, and methamphetamine. All increase BP, breathing, heartrate, and alertness. Can be addictive, increases serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.
Ecstasy: MDMA, stimulant and mild hallucinogen; effects, dehydration, overheating, increase BP, disrupts sleep, impairs immune system, memory, and cognitive function.
Hallucinogens: Distort perceptions and evoke sensory images. Effects can range from euphoria to panic; unpredictable – depends on strength of does, context, and individual factors.
Marijuana: Hemp plant cannabis sativa, most widely used illegal drug in US, active ingredient THC – Tetrahydrocannabinol, increases GABA and dopamine.

Ch 5:

What is learning? What are some different types of learning? Why do we learn?

Relatively permanent change in behavior or capabilities, based on experience. Habituation, Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning.

What is habituation? Be able to recognize examples.

A decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus.

What is classical conditioning?

Type of learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli.

Know and recognize examples of unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response.

Ex: Original Cue, response to original cue, new cue, response to new cue.

What is operant conditioning? What are reinforcement and punishment? How do they affect behavior? Be able to recognize examples.

Type of learning where behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it.
Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.
Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

What are positive and negative reinforcement? What are the different types of negative reinforcement? What are positive and negative punishment? Be able to recognize examples.

Positive R: The presentation of a stimulus results in strengthening a behavior
Negative R: The removal or avoidance of a stimulus results in strengthening a behavior
Escape Conditioning
Avoidance Conditioning
Positive P: The presentation of a stimulus results in weakening a behavior
Negative P: The removal or avoidance of a stimulus results in weakening a behavior

What are the different categories and types of reinforcement schedules Be able to recognize examples.

Continuous Reinforcement: The desired Response is rewarded every time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Response is only reinforced part of the time, four schedules of partial reinforcement.
1. Fixed Ratio Schedule: Behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.
2. Variable Ratio Schedule: Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
3. Fixed Interval Schedule: First instance of a behavior is reinforced after asset amount of time.
4. Variable Interval Schedule: First instance of a behavior is reinforced after a varying amount of time.

What is observational learning? What factors are important to observational learning?

Learning that occurs by observing the behavior of a model.
1. Attention
2. Retention: Retain the info in memory so that it can be recalled when needed
3. Reproduction: Must be physically capable of reproducing the behavior or something similar to it.
4. Motivation: Must be motivated to display the behavior.

Ch 6:

What is memory? What are the three processes of memory (encoding, storage, retrieval) and how do they work?

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of info.
Encoding: Processing info into the memory system
Storage: The retention of encoded info over time
Retrieval: The process of getting info out of memory storage.

What is the three-stage theory of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term) and how do the different stages work?

Atkinson Shiffrin (1968)
Sensory Memory: Immediate, very brief recording of sensory info
Short-Term Memory: Activated memory that holds 5-9 units of information for up to 30sec if the info is not rehearsed.
Long-Term Memory: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

What are the types of processing we engage in (automatic, effortful) and how do they work?

Automatic: Unconscious encoding of incidental info (space, time, & frequency) and well learned info (word meanings)
Effortful: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, produces durable and accessible memories.

What is rehearsal? What are the different types of rehearsal? Be able to recognize examples.

The conscious repetition of info either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Simple Repetition
Elaborative Rehearsal: Focusing on meaning and expanding on it

What are the different levels of encoding? What types are shallow? Intermediate? Deep? Be able to recognize examples. What allows us to remember most accurately?

Structural Encoding: Encoding of pictures and images (shallow) Ex: Recall page from book for exam
Acoustic Encoding: Encoding of sound, especially the sound of words (somewhat shallow) Ex: Memorize and recall exact definition
Sematic Encoding: Encoding of meaning, including meaning od words (deep) Ex: Studying with terms using your own words.

What is the self-reference effect?

We remember info better if we can find a way to relate it to ourselves.

What are some limitations on effortful processing?

Next In Line Effect: When we need to remember things said by others, we are most likely to forget what the person who is immediately before us said because we are already focusing on our own performance.
Spacing Effect: Distributed study or practice tends to lead to better memory than when rehearsal is not distributed over time.
Serial Position Effect: We are more likely to remember the info we hear first, and the most recently heard info, but forget the info in the middle.

What strategies for organization during encoding do we use? Be able to recognize examples.

Chunking: We more easily recall info when we organize it into meaningful units
Hierarchies: Start with a few broad concepts and subdivide into narrower concepts and facts

What are the different types of memory storage? (iconic, echoic, short-term, long-term, declarative, procedural, implicit, explicit)? Know all related information.

Iconic: Visual sensory memory, only lasts few tenths of a second
Echoic: Auditory sensory memory, lasts for 3-4 seconds
Short-Term: Unless rehearsed, this info will decay quickly (within 30sec)
Long-Term: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Declarative: Factual knowledge; broken down into two subtypes
Episodic: Store of knowledge regarding personal experiences
Semantic: Factual knowledge about the world and language, memory for words and concepts
Procedural: Memory for skills and actions
Implicit: Unconscious memory
Explicit: Conscious Memory

How can we help ourselves retrieve information?

By using retrieval cues (Ex: mnemonic devices, sights, smells, sounds) and priming.

What are some reasons that we forget (encoding failure, decay, interference, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting, & specifics types related to each)? How do they cause us to forget?

Encoding Failure: Can remember what we fail to encode because it never reaches long-term
Storage decay: Much of what we learn we quickly forget
Proactive Interference: Something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you learned later
Retroactive Interference: Something you learn later disrupts recall of info learned earlier.
Tip-of-the-tongue State: When we cannot recall something, but we are on the verge of remembering it
Suppression: Person makes conscious attempt to put an event out of mind, but still aware it occurred
Repression: Defense mechanism that moves anxiety-arousing thoughts, feeling, and memories to the unconscious.

What are false memories? How might they be created?

Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading info into ones memory of an event. (Ex: "Smashed" into each other rather than "hit")
Source Amnesia: Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read, or imagined.

Ch 7:

What is cognition? What processes does it include?

All the mental processing, understanding, remembering, and communicating.
Thinking: mentally manipulating information.

What is the information processing approach?

Analyzes how we manipulate, monitor, and create strategies for handling information.

What are concepts? How do we define/organize concepts? Why are concepts important. Be able to recognize examples.

Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
We organize them into category hierarchies.
Important because: They allow us to generalize, to associate experiences and objects, makes memory more efficient, and provides clues about how to react to particular objects or experiences.

What are prototypes? Be able to recognize examples.

Mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a concept.

What is problem solving? What are some steps in solving problems? What are some obstacles to problem solving? Be able to recognize examples.

Finding appropriate way to attain a goal
Steps: Find and frame problems, develop good problem-solving strategies, evaluate solutions, and rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time.
Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

What is decision making? What is elimination by aspects? Be able to recognize examples.

Process of considering alternatives and choosing among them

What are some common biases in our thinking? Be able to recognize examples.

Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms one's perceptions.
Loss Aversion: Tendency to weigh potential losses more heavily than potential gains.
Base Rate Neglect: Tendency to ignore information about general principles and favor very specific, vivid information.
Hindsight Bias: Outcomes often seem obvious after the fact.

What are some common heuristics? How can using heuristics lead us to make errors? Be able to recognize examples.

Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
Recognition Heuristic: Decision making process stops when a factor that moves toward one decision is recognized.

What is framing and how might it affect the decision-making process? Be able to recognize examples.

The way an issue is presented can significantly affect the decisions and judgements.

How is intelligence defined? What is g-factor?

Individual's ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and overcome obstacles through mental effort.

What is Sternberg's theory of intelligence? Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize in examples and/or apply.

Argues that there are 3 types of intelligence.
Analytical Intelligence: Mental abilities closely related to conventional IQ – more analytical intelligence.
Creative Intelligence: Creative thinking and problem solving
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts", everyday skills

What is Gardner's theory of intelligence? Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize in examples and/or apply.

What are the rule systems of language? Be able to apply to examples.

Phonology: Sound system of language, includes sounds that are used and how they may be combined
Morphology: Refers to units of meaning involved in forming words.
Syntax: Involves rules for combining words into phrases and sentences.
Semantics: Refers to the actual meaning behind words and sentences.
Pragmatics: rules governing use of language in different contexts.

What are some explanations of language development?

Skinner - We learn language through operant conditioning. Association, limitation, reinforcement.
Chomsky - Our brains are prewired to learn a language; environment just shapes which language we learn.
Cognitive Scientists - Critical period for mastering language.
Interactionist View - Emphasizes biology and experience as they contribute to language development.

Ch 8:

What are the 4 major issues in developmental research? Know related terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Nature and Nature: to what extent is our development due to heredity and to what extent the product of the environment
Sensitive and Critical Periods – Sensitive: An optimal age range for certain experiences. Critical: An age range during which certain experiences must occur for development to proceed normally or along a certain path
Continually vs. Discontinuity: Development continuous and gradual or is it discontinuous, progressing in stages
Stability vs. Change: Do characteristics remain consistent as we age?

What are some ways that we conduct developmental research? Be able to recognize examples.

Not a clue my guy

What are the different stages of prenatal development? What general changes occur in each stage?

The Germinal Stage: First 2 weeks – conception to implantation
- Cells specialize into cells that become the body and cells that become support structures.
The Embryonic Stage: Begins at implantation and continues to about 8 weeks.
- All organs developed by end of week 8
Fetal Stage: Final stage, begins at end of week 8 and lasts to birth
- Most of fetal growth occurs.

What are teratogens? When are they of most concern? What are the different types of teratogens?

External agents that cause abnormal development
First 8 weeks
Viral, environmental, or drugs.

What does dynamic systems theory say about motor and perceptual development? What is the role of experience in infant development?

Motor behaviors are developed based on action and perception.

What is shaken baby syndrome?

Brian swelling and hemorrhage due to head trauma in infants.

What are schemas? What are assimilation and accommodation? Be able to recognize examples.

Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Assimilation: Occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences.
Accommodation: Occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account.

What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development? At what ages did Piaget say we are in each stage? What abilities characterize each stage? Know all related terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Sensorimotor Stage: stage lasting from birth to 2 years in which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical/motor actions
Object Permanence: understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen
- Appears around 8 months
Preoperational Stage: age 2-6; children represent the world symbolically through words and mental images, but do not yet understand basic mental operations or rules.
- Think about past and future
- Engage in symbolic thought
Concrete Operational Stage: ages 7-12; children can perform basic mental operations concerning problems that involve tangible (concrete) objects and situation.
- Grasp concept of reversibility
- Understand conservation
Formal Operational Stage: age 11-adulthood; can think logically about concrete and abstract problems, form hypotheses and systematical.
- More creative thinking

What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development? How do the limits change? What is scaffolding? Be able to recognize examples.

Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with the guidance or assistance of adults or more skilled children
Lower limit - what child can do with no assistance
Upper limit - what child can do with assistance of able instructor
Scaffolding: Changing the level of support – adjust amount of guidance given to the child based on child's current performance.

What is temperament? What are the different classifications of temperament? Be able to recognize examples.

A biologically based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviorally to the environment.
Easy, Difficult, slow-to-warm-up, & inhibited/disinhibited.

What is attachment? What are some factors that are important for developing attachment?

Strong emotional bond tat develops between children and their primary caregivers.
Contact comfort and oxytocin.

What are the basic attachment styles? What causes each type to develop? Be able to recognize examples.

Secure Attachment- caregiver readily available when needed, emotionally responsive, meets needs.
Insecure Avoidant Attachment- caregiver typically either over intrusive and over stimulating or rejecting.
Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment- caregiver inconsistent or unreliable.

What are Erikson's stages of psychosocial development during childhood? What ages does he propose that we are in each stage? What happens during each stage? Be able to recognize examples.

Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy; either develop general sense of trust or general sense of mistrust based on how well needs are met and emotional interactions during first year.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlers; children begin to show individuality, if continuously restricted or harshly punished, may develop shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt: Early childhood (3-6 yrs); children display curiosity about the world, if allowed to explore, develop initiative, if held back or punished, develop guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority: Middle/late childhood (6-puberty); if experience pride and encouragement in mastering tasks, develop sense of industry; if repeated failure or lack of praise, develop sense of inferior.

What are Erikson's stages of psychosocial development during adolescence and adulthood? What ages does he propose that we are in each stage? What happens during each stage? Be able to recognize examples.

Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence; go through "identity crisis"- either emerge with healthy sense of identity or end up confused about identity and values.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Early adulthood; young adults should develop a close, intimate relationship with another person.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle adulthood; middle aged adults should focus on contributions to next generation.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair: Late adulthood; older adults should experience "life review" and evaluate meaning- if successful, sense of integrity emerges.

What are the different parenting styles? What are the characteristics and outcomes associated with each? Be able to recognize examples.

Authoritarian (Punishment, structure, 'I'm the boss'), Authoritative (Supportive, guidelines, self-regulation), Uninvolved (Neglectful, uninterested, absent), and Permissive ('You're the boss', over-involved, no guidelines).

What are James Marcia's stages of identity development? What characterizes each stage? Be able to recognize examples.

Identity Diffusion: Have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments.
- Undecided about occupational and ideological choices & likely to show little interest in such matters.
Identity Foreclosure: Have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
- Occurs most often when parents hand down a commitment to adolescents, typically in an authoritarian way, before adolescent has a chance to explore on their own.
Identity Moratorium: In the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined.
- Identity achievement: have undergone a crisis and made a commitment.

What are some influences on gender development? Be able to recognize examples.

Gender Identity: A sense of "maleness" or "femaleness" that becomes a central aspect of personal identity.
- Most develop basic identity by age 2-3, can label themselves as a boy or girl.
Develop Gender Schema: Mental framework for what it means to be male or female in one's culture.

What are the Kohlberg's main stages of moral development? Be able to recognize examples.

Preconventional Reasoning: Lowest level of moral reasoning- good & bad interpreted in terms of external rewards & punishments.
Conventional Reasoning: Intermediate level of moral reasoning, individuals apply certain standards, but they are standards set by others such as parents or government.
Postconventional Reasoning: Highest level of moral reasoning, individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options & then decides on a personal moral code.

What are Kubler-Ross's stages of dying? Be able to recognize examples.

Denial- "I'm not sick", "The doctors are wrong", etc.
Anger- Towards doctors, family, God, etc.
Bargaining- "If I just start doing healthier things I'll live longer", making deals with God, etc.
Depression- Over past losses, missed opportunities, and future losses.
Acceptance- Come to terms and grieve for own death.

Ch 9:

What is motivation? What are motives? Be able to recognize in examples and/or apply.

All the processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior.
Needs (Motives): State of deficiency that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

What does Drive Reduction Theory propose about motivation? What are drives? What is homeostasis? What are incentives? Be able to recognize examples.

Drive: Internal state of tension or arousal that is brought about by an underlying need that an organism is motivated to reduce.
Homeostasis: The natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state in order to ensure physical survival.
Incentives: Environmental stimuli that pull an organism toward a goal.

What is Maslow's theory of motivation? Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize examples.

What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? Be able to recognize examples.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation to behave in a certain way because the behavior itself is satisfying and enjoyable.
Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation to behave in a certain way to gain an external reward or avoid punishment.

What is self-determination theory? Be able to recognize examples.

Suggests that people are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.

What are emotions? What factors contribute to an emotional response?

Feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs.
Subjective Experience: Feelings that come with the emotion; conscious experience of emotion.
Physical Changes (Arousal): Changes in heart rate, skin temperature, brain activation.
Cognitive Appraisals: Beliefs and understandings about why we feel the way we do.

What are the different types of emotions? Be able to recognize examples.

Primary: Basic emotions. Adaptive, culturally universal (anger, fear, sad, happy).
Secondary: Blends of basic emotions (guilt/shame).

How does the James-Lange theory explain emotion? Be able to recognize examples.

Believed that certain patterns of physical changes lead to the experience of certain emotions.
The emotion we experience follows the physiological arousal.

What is the facial feedback hypothesis? Be able to recognize examples.

Muscle patterns behind facial movements tied to subjective experience of emotions.

How does the Cannon-Bard theory explain emotion? Be able to recognize examples.

We experience the emotion and the physiological arousal simultaneously (yet independently) as we experience the stimulus.

How does the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory explain emotion? Be able to recognize examples.

Believe situation evokes a physical response (arousal) and a cognitive interpretation (emotion label).
The arousal we experience and cause we attribute it to lead to the experience of an emotion.

What is misattribution of arousal? What is excitation transfer? Be able to recognize examples.

It is possible to attribute the cause of the arousal incorrectly – leads to wrong emotional label.
Excitation Transfer - The idea that residual excitement from one stimulus can amplify the excitatory response created by another stimulus even if those two stimuli are cognitively interpreted as different emotions.

What are cultural display rules? Be able to apply to examples.

Cultural rules that dictate when, where, and how emotions can be appropriately expressed. Ex: Crying

What are some factors that impact happiness? Be able to recognize examples.

Biological factors:
- Genes and the brain both play a role.
- Heritability may be 50-80%
- Set point?
Obstacles
- Hedonic Treadmill: Idea that any aspect of life that enhances positive feelings is only likely to do so for a short time due to adaptation.

CH 10

How is personality defined? What are some characteristics of thought, feelings, and actions?

The distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking.
Behavioral components of identity, caused by internal factors, & organized and structured.

How does the psychodynamic approach explain personality?

It's like an iceberg, mostly below the surface.

What are the three segments of personality as defined by Freud? Describe each. Be able to recognize examples.

Id: Instincts, impulsive, acts on pleasure and avoids pain.
Ego: develops as children learn constraint. Acts on reality principle, partly conscious, makes decisions to ensure survival and success.
Superego: Moral component of personality. "Conscience", does not consider reality, conflicts with Id, Ego resolves that conflict.

What are Freud's defense mechanisms? Why did he say we use them? Be able to recognize examples.

When superego conflicts with id, ego makes us feel anxiety.
Denial, Repression, Projection, Regression, Rationalization
Displacement: Directing an emotion to an object or person other than the one who caused it.
Sublimation: Impulse transformed into socially acceptable behavior.
Reaction formation: urge to preform unacceptable behavior repressed, released through opposite behavior.

What is Jung's theory of personality? Know related terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Collective Unconscious: Deep unconscious experiences shared with ancestors.
Archetypes: ideas and images that have a symbolic meaning for all people
Anima/animus: Feminine vs. masculine aspects of personality
Persona: "Mask" you wear in public

What does Rogers say about need for positive regard and need for positive self-regard? What are unconditional and conditional positive regard? What are conditions of worth? How do they develop? Be able to recognize examples.

P-Regard: Need for acceptance, sympathy, and love from others.
P-Self-Regard: Desire to feel good about ourselves.
Unconditional: A person is inherently worthy of love, regardless of accomplishments or behavior.
Conditional: Dependent on behavior, may lead to resentment and fluctuations I self-esteem.
Conditions of Worth: We approve of disapprove ourselves. Develop when lack of Unconditional PR from significant people.

What are personality traits? What is factor analysis?

Personality Traits: Relatively stable cognitive, emotional, and behavioral characteristics of people that help establish their individual identities and distinguish them from others.
Factor analysis: A way to determine clusters of correlated personality traits.

What is the 5-factor theory? What are the Big 5 traits? Be able to recognize examples.

Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

What are the three reasons it is difficult to predict behavior across situations based on personality traits? Be able to recognize examples.

Traits interact with other traits and characteristics of situation, importance of trait to person influences consistency, and self-monitoring.

What is reciprocal determinism? How does it apply to personality? Be able to recognize examples.

Environment interacts with the person (cognitive) to produce personality.

What personal control factors influence behavior? Be able to recognize examples.

Internal: belief in personal control over life outcomes
External: believe in luck, fate and other uncontrollable outcomes.

What is self-efficacy? What 4 factors does Bandura say affect self-efficacy? Be able to recognize examples.

SE: Beliefs concerning ability to perform behaviors needed to achieve desired outcomes.
Situation specific, observational learning, Verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal.

How does the CAPS theory explain personality?

Situationism: personality and behavior vary from one situation to another.

How much influence do genetics seem to have on personality? How important is family environment? Personal experience?

Based on outcomes of twin studies: 40-50% of trait variance accounted for by genetics

Family environment not as influential as personal experience

CH 11

What is social psychology?

Scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people.

What is Attribution Theory? What is the difference between a personal attribution and a situational attribution? Be able to recognize examples.

Suggests how we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.
Personal=Internal & Situational=External

What is the Fundamental Attribution Error? Actor/observer discrepancy? Self-serving Bias? Be able to recognize examples.

We tend to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the situation when explaining another person's behavior.
Tends to be the opposite when explaining our own behavior
We tend to attribute our success to our own disposition and our failures to the situation

What is prejudice? What is discrimination? Be able to recognize examples.

Unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members.
Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

What are some ways to reduce prejudice. Be able to recognize examples.

Educate about stereotype threat.

What is cognitive dissonance theory? Be able to explain and recognize in examples.

Need consistency in our attitudes or between attitude and behavior.

What are the ways in which we might be influenced while we are in a group? (social facilitation, social loafing, deindividuation, group polarization, groupthink). Know the definitions and be able to recognize examples.

Who knows at this point.

What is the Chameleon Effect? Be able to recognize examples.

We unconsciously mimic other expressions, postures, and voice tones.

What is conformity and what are some factors that influence it? What are the types of social influence? Be able to recognize examples.

Adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.
Normative social influence & Informational social influence.

What was Milgrim's famous experiment? What percentage of people obeyed Milgrim's orders? What are some factors that influence obedience to authority? Be able to recognize examples.

67% showed complete obedience even when they did not want to.

What was Zimbardo's Prison Experiment? What happened? What was the finding?

Also couldn't find this answer.

What is aggression? What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis? What are some other influences on aggression? Be able to recognize examples.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Frustration increases risk of verbal and physical aggression.
Heat, provocation, pain, and crowding.

What is altruism? Be able to recognize examples.

Behavior that is aimed at helping others, requires some self-sacrifice, and is not performed for personal gain

What is the bystander effect? Be able to recognize examples. What is diffusion of responsibility?

Bystander: As the number of people at the scene increases the likelihood of a victim getting help decreases.
D-of-R: The feeling among bystanders that it is the responsibility of the group to help.

What are 3 things that influence attraction? What is the terminology to refer to these 3 effects? Be able to recognize examples.

Proximity, Physical Attractiveness, and Similarity.

What are Sternberg's levels of love? Be able to recognize examples.

Romantic, Affectionate, and Consummate (strongest).

Ch 12

What are some ways to determine if a behavior is abnormal? Be able to recognize examples of abnormal vs normal behavior.

Distressing behavior, deviant (violates social norm) behavior, interferes with social life, work, and self-care.

What is the DSM-5? How does it work?

Clinician required to provide both categorical and dimensional info as part of diagnosis.
Lists about 400 disorders. Category: Class of disorder (anxiety/depressive), type of disorder (Generalized Anxiety/ Major Depressive), & amount of disorders. Dimension: Severity of disorder & how much symptoms impair functioning.

What is an anxiety disorder?

Frequency and intensity of anxiety responses are out of proportion to the situations that trigger them, and the anxiety interferes with daily life.

What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder? Be able to recognize examples.

People experience chronic, excessive worry for 6 months or more.
Tend to expect the worst, unable to not worry, person feels tired, tense, irritable, and will have hard time sleeping & concentrating.

What is panic disorder? What is a panic attack? What is agoraphobia? Be able to recognize examples.

Person experiences recurring panic attacks
Unpredictable episodes of overwhelming anxiety, fear or terror.
Intense fear or avoidance of situations where escape is difficult and help is unavailable when panic strikes. Ex: Avoids being outside of house, on a bus/elevator/car, etc.

What is a phobia? What are the types? Be able to recognize examples.

Persistent, irrational fear of some specific object, situation, or activity that poses no real danger.
Specific Phobia / Social Phobia

What is OCD? What are obsessions? Compulsions? Be able to recognize examples.

Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: Anxiety disorder in which people suffer from recurrent obsession, compulsions, or both.
Obsession: Persistent, involuntary thoughts, images, or impulses that invade consciousness and cause the person distress.
Compulsion: Persistent, irresistible, and irrational urges to preform acts or rituals repeatedly.

What is PTSD? Why might it occur? Be able to recognize examples.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpiness, and/or insomnia that lasts for weeks.

What are dissociative disorders?

Breakdown of normal personality integration, resulting in significant alterations in memory or identity.

What is Dissociative Identity Disorder? Know all related terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Person develops two or more distinct alters, each with a unique set of memories, behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.

What are mood disorders?

The 'mood' lasts a long time, influences all of their interactions with the world, and interferes with normal functioning.

What is Depression? What are the different types? Be able to recognize examples and distinguish types.

Low, sad state.
Major Depression: Intense depression
Persistent Depressive Disorder: A pattern that lasts at least 2 years

What is mania? What are the symptoms? What is Bipolar Disorder? What are the different types? How are they distinguished? Be able to recognize examples.

Exaggerated euphoria
Bipolar Disorder: Alternating periods of mania and depression
Bipolar 1: Have full manic and depressive episodes
Bipolar 2: Hypomanic episodes alternate with major depressive episodes
Cyclothymic Disorder: Alternating hypomanic episodes with mild depressive episodes

What is a major depressive episode? What are the criteria for single episode versus recurrent? Be able to recognize examples.

A period in which a person shows at least 5 symptoms of depression for two weeks or more.
Recurrent: If 2 or more episodes occur and are separated by 2 un-depressed months

What are the different types of manic episodes? What are the different types of Bipolar disorder? Be able to recognize examples.

Full Manic Episode: Abnormally high or irritable mood for at least one week, along with at least 3 other symptoms of mania.
Hypomanic Episode: Symptoms of mania are less severe & cause little impairment.

What is Schizophrenia? What are positive and negative symptoms? Be able to recognize examples.

Psychotic disorder in which personal, social, and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of strange perceptions, disturbed thought processes, unusual emotions, and motor abnormalities.
Positive: Excess of thought, emotion, and behavior.
Negative: Deficits of thought, emotion, and behavior.

What is a personality disorder? What are the different clusters? What are the types of personality disorders? Be able to recognize examples.

Inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behavior. 
Odd Personality Disorders: Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal.
Dramatic Personality Disorders: Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic.
Anxious Personality Disorders: Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive.

Ch 13

What is psychoanalysis? What are the five techniques used in psychoanalysis? Be able to recognize examples of the different techniques.

Freud's approach.
Free Association, Dream Interpretation, Resistance, Transference, & Interpretation.

What are the characteristics of humanistic therapies? What is the major goal?

View humans as capable of consciously controlling own actions.
Goal – Remove barriers and encourage self-exploration.

What is client-centered therapy? What are the different attributes? Be able to recognize examples.

Client/therapist relationship is central, focuses on fostering self-exploration and personal growth.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Therapist shows genuine care for and acceptance of client as a person – no judgement/evaluation.
Empathy: Willingness and ability to view the world through client's eyes.
Genuineness: Refers to consistency between the way the therapist feels and the way he/she behaves – honesty.

What is exposure therapy? Be able to recognize examples.

Expose client to feared CS in absence of UCS while using response prevention to keep avoidance response from occurring. (Classical Conditioning)

What is systematic desensitization? Be able to recognize examples.

Uses counterconditioning to allow clients to remain relaxed while gradually facing feared situations. (Classical Conditioning)

What is aversion therapy? Be able to recognize examples.

Therapist pairs a stimulus that is attractive to the client (CS) with an aversive UCS in an attempt to condition an aversion to the CS. (Classical Conditioning)

What is behavioral activation therapy? Be able to recognize examples.

Behavioral treatment for depression – increases positively reinforcing behaviors.

What is social skills training? Be able to recognize examples.

Clients learned new skills by observing and then imitating a model who preforms a socially skillful behavior.

What is Dialectical Behavior Therapy? What disorder was it designed to treat? What techniques are used? What is the goal?

Teach problem-solving, emotional control, interpersonal skills, and adaptive cognitive styles.
Treatment developed for borderline personality disorder.
Goal – Reduce self-destructive behaviors and suicide attempts.

What are cognitive therapies? What is cognitive restructuring? Be able to recognize examples.

Focus on modifying automatic thought patterns that lead to maladaptive emotions and behaviors.
Replacing maladaptive thought patterns with more adaptive, accurate thoughts and interpretations of situations.

What is cognitive-behavioral therapy? Be able to recognize examples.

Assume maladaptive behavior results from irrational thoughts, beliefs, or ideas.

What are the different categories of drug treatment?

Antipsychotic, Antianxiety, & Antidepressant.

What is electroconvulsive therapy? What are the characteristics? How is it thought to work? What are the side effects/concerns?

Administers electric shock to brain for less than a second, convulsions last several minutes. Possible memory loss.

Ch 14

What is health psychology?

Addresses factors that influence well-being and illness, as well as measures that can be taken to promote heath and prevent illness.

What is the biopsychosocial model?

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in focusing on health.

What is the stage of change model? What are the 6 major stages? How do people typically progress through the stages? Be able to recognize examples. What are stage matched interventions?

A change process as people modify thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
1. Precontemplation: person does not recognize the problem, denies it endangers well-being, feels powerless to change
2. Contemplation: person perceives the problem or desires to change, but has not yet taken action.
 - Will not take action until perceived benefits outweigh costs
3. Preparation: person has decided to change behavior, making plans to do so, and may be taking preliminary steps
4. Action: person begins to actively engage in behavior change
 - success hinges on behavior-control skills
 - Greatest commitment and effort
 - May take 3-5 cycles
5. Maintenance: person has been successful in avoiding relapse and has controlled the target behavior for at least 6 months
6. Termination: original problem will never return

What is relapse prevention? What is the typical path to relapse? What is the abstinence violation effect? Why is it important in relapse?

Designed to reduce risk of relapse. Relapse is most likely to occur when coping skills aren't efficient enough for a high-risk situation.
AV Effort: Person becomes upset and self-blaming over the lapse and views it as proof that he/she will never be strong enough to resist temptation. (Can cause people to abandon efforts to change)

What is stress? What are the different types of stress? Be able to recognize examples.

Physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges a person and requires some form of adaption or readjustment.
Eustress: Stress from positive events (wedding, birthdays)
Distress: Stress from negative events (fired, break-ups)

What is a stressor? What are the different types of stressors? Be able to recognize examples.

Any stimulus or event that produces or is capable of producing physical or emotional stress.
Hassles: Daily annoyances; effects may build up over time
Uplifts: Positive experiences in life, may neutralize the effects of many hassles.
Major Life Events: Changes or disruptions requiring significant adjustment.
Catastrophic Events: Occur unexpectedly, affect large numbers of people – natural disasters, war.

What are the 3 different types of conflict? Be able to recognize examples.

Approach-approach Conflict: Conflict arising from having to choose between desirable alternatives.
Avoidance-avoidance Conflict: Conflict arising from having to choose between 2 undesirable alternatives.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Involves a single choice that has both desirable and undesirable features.

What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? What are the 3 stages? What happens during each? Be able to recognize examples.

Alarm: Person experiences a burst of energy – helps the person handle the situation (fight or flight)
Resistance: Body is attempting to resist or adapt to the stressor
Exhaustion: Occurs if the body fails in its efforts to resist the stressor; exhausts all energy, may lead to death.

What is psychoneuroimmunology? How does stress affect health and immune functioning?

Explores connections among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system. (Short-term stressors increase immune system functioning.)

What the two types of cognitive appraisals when it comes to stressful events? Be able to recognize examples.

Primary Appraisal: Evaluate meaning and significance of the situation; it is positive, negative, or irrelevant?
Secondary Appraisal: If people judge the situation to be in their control, they make evaluation of available resources (physical, psychological, material, time), then consider the options and determine how to handle the stressor.

What are the different types of coping strategies? How effective are they? In what types of situations are they effective? Be able to recognize examples.

Problem-Focused Coping: Strategies that attempt to confront and deal directly with demands of a situation or change situation so it is no longer stressful.
Emotion-Focused Coping: Responding to stress in an emotional manner

In what ways can social support help buffer against the effects of stress?

1.Enhances immune system functioning

2.Leads to greater sense of identity and meaning- greater psychological well-being

3.Reduces exposure to other risk factors

4.Increases sense of control

5.Prevents maladaptive coping

What is resilience? What are some characteristics? What are protective factors?

Ability to tolerate and thrive in highly stressful conditions. (Intellectual functioning, social skills, self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and social support.)
PF: Environmental and personal resources that create resilience, helping people cope more effectively with stressful events.

What is hardiness? What are the components? How is this related to health? Be able to recognize examples.

A combination of three psychological qualities shared by people who can handle high levels of stress and remain healthy.
Commitment: Feel strong sense of commitment to work and personal life.
Control: Feel they can control consequences and outcomes.
Challenges: Welcome challenges, see them as opportunities for growth.

What is coping self-efficacy? How is self-efficacy relevant to dealing with stress?

Belief that one can perform the behaviors necessary to cope successfully.

How can positive emotions influence coping ability? What is benefit finding? Be able to recognize examples.

Effort to identify positive results of a stressful circumstance.