Ch 7:

What is cognition? What processes does it include?

All the mental processing, understanding, remembering, and communicating.
Thinking: mentally manipulating information.

What is the information processing approach?

Analyzes how we manipulate, monitor, and create strategies for handling information.

What are concepts? How do we define/organize concepts? Why are concepts important. Be able to recognize examples.

Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
We organize them into category hierarchies.
Important because: They allow us to generalize, to associate experiences and objects, makes memory more efficient, and provides clues about how to react to particular objects or experiences.

What are prototypes? Be able to recognize examples.

Mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a concept.

What is problem solving? What are some steps in solving problems? What are some obstacles to problem solving? Be able to recognize examples.

Finding appropriate way to attain a goal
Steps: Find and frame problems, develop good problem-solving strategies, evaluate solutions, and rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time.
Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.

What is decision making? What is elimination by aspects? Be able to recognize examples.

Process of considering alternatives and choosing among them

What are some common biases in our thinking? Be able to recognize examples.

Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms one's perceptions.
Loss Aversion: Tendency to weigh potential losses more heavily than potential gains.
Base Rate Neglect: Tendency to ignore information about general principles and favor very specific, vivid information.
Hindsight Bias: Outcomes often seem obvious after the fact.

What are some common heuristics? How can using heuristics lead us to make errors? Be able to recognize examples.

Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
Recognition Heuristic: Decision making process stops when a factor that moves toward one decision is recognized.

What is framing and how might it affect the decision making process? Be able to recognize examples.

The way an issue is presented can significantly affect the decisions and judgements.

What is critical thinking? What are some factors that contribute to critical thinking? Be able to recognize examples.

Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence.
Mindfulness: Being alert and mentally present – active awareness of circumstances on one's life.
Open-Mindedness: Being receptive to other ways of looking at things.

How is intelligence defined? What is g-factor?

Individual's ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and overcome obstacles through mental effort.

What are the common intelligence tests? Be able to recognize and apply relevant terminology.

Stanford-Binet Test – Scored on normal distribution, includes verbal and nonverbal subscales
Wechsler Scales – Overall IQ on verbal comprehension, working memory, and speed of processing. Indicates strengths and weaknesses.
- Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – 4th Ed (2yr 6m-7yr 3m)
- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 5th Ed (6-16)
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – 4th Ed

What are some of the cultural concerns regarding intelligence testing? What are culture-fair tests?

Cultural groups and individuals within cultures vary in the way they describe intelligence
(1) Includes questions familiar to all socioeconomical and ethnic backgrounds
(2) No verbal questions

What are some factors that contribute to intelligence? What is the Flynn Effect?

Genetic Influence
- Heritability: Fraction of the variance within a population attributed to genetics.
Environmental Influence
- Improving environment can raise intelligence.
Flynn Effect: The tendency of IQ scores to change over time, and specifically, the apparent increase in intelligence in the general population evidenced by a steady increase in IQ scores.

What is Sternberg's theory of intelligence? Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize in examples and/or apply.

Argues that there are 3 types of intelligence.
Analytical Intelligence: Mental abilities closely related to conventional IQ – more analytical intelligence.
Creative Intelligence: Creative thinking and problem solving
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts", everyday skills

What is Gardner's theory of intelligence? Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize in examples and/or apply.

How is language defined? What do we mean by infinite generativity?

Our spoken, written, or signs words and the wats we combine them to communicate meaning
Infinite Generativity: Characteristic of language that we can communicate in an infinite number of ideas using a finite set of symbols.

What are the rule systems of language? Be able to apply to examples.

Phonology: Sound system of language, includes sounds that are used and how they may be combined
Morphology: Refers to units of meaning involved in forming words.
Syntax: Involves rules for combining words into phrases and sentences.
Semantics: Refers to the actual meaning behind words and sentences.
Pragmatics: rules governing use of language in different contexts.

What are some explanations of language development?

Skinner - We learn language through operant conditioning. Association, limitation, reinforcement.
Chomsky - Our brains are prewired to learn a language; environment just shapes which language we learn.
Cognitive Scientists - Critical period for mastering language.
Interactionist View - Emphasizes biology and experience as they contribute to language development.

Ch 8:

What are the 4 major issues in developmental research? Know related terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Nature and Nature: to what extent is our development due to heredity and to what extent the product of the environment
Sensitive and Critical Periods – Sensitive: An optimal age range for certain experiences. Critical: An age range during which certain experiences must occur for development to proceed normally or along a certain path
Continually vs. Discontinuity: Development continuous and gradual or is it discontinuous, progressing in stages
Stability vs. Change: Do characteristics remain consistent as we age?

What are some ways that we conduct developmental research? Be able to recognize examples.

Not a clue my guy

What is a genotype? What is a phenotype? What is the difference?

Genotype: The unique genetic blueprint of each individual. (Biological Traits)
Phenotype: The particular set of characteristics possessed by an individual. (Physical traits)

What are gametes? What is a zygote? What is the main difference between them? How do chromosomes affect the traits that we have?

Sperm and ovum (23 SINGLE chromosomes)
Cell that contains 23 PAIRS of chromosomes.
Chromosomes made up of DNA and subdivided into genes (which control specific traits)

What are the different stages of prenatal development? What general changes occur in each stage?

The Germinal Stage: First 2 weeks – conception to implantation
- Cells specialize into cells that become the body and cells that become support structures.
The Embryonic Stage: Begins at implantation and continues to about 8 weeks.
- All organs developed by end of week 8
Fetal Stage: Final stage, begins at end of week 8 and lasts to birth
- Most of fetal growth occurs.

What are teratogens? When are they of most concern? What are the different types of teratogens?

External agents that cause abnormal development
First 8 weeks
Viral, environmental, or drugs.

What is maturation? What are the cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles?

Genetically programmed biological process that governs our growth.
Cephalocaudal: Growth and development proceed in a head-to-toe direction.
Proximodistal: Growth and development proceed from the center outward.

What are some early reflexes? Be able to recognize examples.

What does dynamic systems theory say about motor and perceptual development?

Motor behaviors are developed based on action and perception.

What is the role of experience in infant development?

Brain develops rapidly in infancy

What is shaken baby syndrome?

Brian swelling and hemorrhage due to head trauma in infants

What are schemas? What are assimilation and accommodation? Be able to recognize examples.

Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Assimilation: Occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences.
Accommodation: Occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account.

What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development? At what ages did Piaget say we are in each stage? What abilities characterize each stage? Know all related terminology and be able to recognize examples.

Sensorimotor Stage: stage lasting from birth to 2 years in which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical/motor actions
Object Permanence: understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen
- Appears around 8 months
Preoperational Stage: age 2-6; children represent the world symbolically through words and mental images, but do not yet understand basic mental operations or rules.
- Think about past and future
- Engage in symbolic thought
Concrete Operational Stage: ages 7-12; children can perform basic mental operations concerning problems that involve tangible (concrete) objects and situation.
- Grasp concept of reversibility
- Understand conservation
Formal Operational Stage: age 11-adulthood; can think logically about concrete and abstract problems, form hypotheses and systematical.
- More creative thinking

What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development? How do the limits change? What is scaffolding? Be able to recognize examples.

Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with the guidance or assistance of adults or more skilled children
Lower limit - what child can do with no assistance
Upper limit - what child can do with assistance of able instructor
Scaffolding: Changing the level of support – adjust amount of guidance given to the child based on child's current performance.

How does the information processing approach explain cognitive development?

Analyzes how children manipulate, monitor, and create strategies for handling information.

What is theory of mind? What are some of the major changes that occur with age? Be able to recognize examples.

Awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental process of others
18 mos - Understand people operate with goals and intentions
3yrs – Understands mental states
4-5yrs – Understands people can have false beliefs, begin to understand how people think to a degree
5+ - Gain understanding of mind, understands 1 event has several interpretations

How do we study infant cognition? Be able to recognize examples.

Used the habituation paradigm; looking at new things.

Why is development of emotional regulation and emotional competence important?

Success in making friends depends on emotional competence and social skills such as sharing, initiating contact, resolving conflict, and helping others.

What is temperament? What are the different classifications of temperament? Be able to recognize examples.

A biologically based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviorally to the environment.
Easy, Difficult, slow-to-warm-up, & inhibited/disinhibited.

What is attachment? What are some factors that are important for developing attachment?

Strong emotional bond tat develops between children and their primary caregivers.
Contact comfort and oxytocin.

What are the basic attachment styles? What causes each type to develop? Be able to recognize examples.

Secure Attachment- caregiver readily available when needed, emotionally responsive, meets needs.
Insecure Avoidant Attachment- caregiver typically either over intrusive and over stimulating or rejecting.
Insecure Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment- caregiver inconsistent or unreliable.

What are Erikson's stages of psychosocial development during childhood? What ages does he propose that we are in each stage? What happens during each stage? Be able to recognize examples.

Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy; either develop general sense of trust or general sense of mistrust based on how well needs are met and emotional interactions during first year.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlers; children begin to show individuality, if continuously restricted or harshly punished, may develop shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt: Early childhood (3-6 yrs); children display curiosity about the world, if allowed to explore, develop initiative, if held back or punished, develop guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority: Middle/late childhood (6-puberty); if experience pride and encouragement in mastering tasks, develop sense of industry; if repeated failure or lack of praise, develop sense of inferior.

What are Erikson's stages of psychosocial development during adolescence and adulthood? What ages does he propose that we are in each stage? What happens during each stage? Be able to recognize examples.

Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence; go through "identity crisis"- either emerge with healthy sense of identity or end up confused about identity and values.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Early adulthood; young adults should develop a close, intimate relationship with another person.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle adulthood; middle aged adults should focus on contributions to next generation.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair: Late adulthood; older adults should experience "life review" and evaluate meaning- if successful, sense of integrity emerges.

What are the different parenting styles? What are the characteristics and outcomes associated with each? Be able to recognize examples.

Authoritarian (Punishment, structure, 'I'm the boss'), Authoritative (Supportive, guidelines, self-regulation), Uninvolved (Neglectful, uninterested, absent), and Permissive ('You're the boss', over-involved, no guidelines).

What are James Marcia's stages of identity development? What characterizes each stage? Be able to recognize examples.

Identity Diffusion: Have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments.
- Undecided about occupational and ideological choices & likely to show little interest in such matters.
Identity Foreclosure: Have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.
- Occurs most often when parents hand down a commitment to adolescents, typically in an authoritarian way, before adolescent has a chance to explore on their own.
Identity Moratorium: In the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined.
- Identity achievement: have undergone a crisis and made a commitment.

What are some influences on gender development? Be able to recognize examples.

Gender Identity: A sense of "maleness" or "femaleness" that becomes a central aspect of personal identity.
- Most develop basic identity by age 2-3, can label themselves as a boy or girl.
Develop Gender Schema: Mental framework for what it means to be male or female in one's culture.

What are the Kohlberg's main stages of moral development? Be able to recognize examples.

Preconventional Reasoning: Lowest level of moral reasoning- good & bad interpreted in terms of external rewards & punishments.
Conventional Reasoning: Intermediate level of moral reasoning, individuals apply certain standards, but they are standards set by others such as parents or government.
Postconventional Reasoning: Highest level of moral reasoning, individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options & then decides on a personal moral code.

What are Kubler-Ross's stages of dying? Be able to recognize examples.

Denial- "I'm not sick", "The doctors are wrong", etc.
Anger- Towards doctors, family, God, etc.
Bargaining- "If I just start doing healthier things I'll live longer", making deals with God, etc.
Depression- Over past losses, missed opportunities, and future losses.
Acceptance- Come to terms and grieve for own death.

Ch 9:

What is motivation? What are motives? Be able to recognize in examples and/or apply.

All the processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior.
Needs (Motives): State of deficiency that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

What does Drive Reduction Theory propose about motivation? What are drives? What is homeostasis? What are incentives? Be able to recognize examples.

Drive: Internal state of tension or arousal that is brought about by an underlying need that an organism is motivated to reduce.
Homeostasis: The natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state in order to ensure physical survival.
Incentives: Environmental stimuli that pull an organism toward a goal.

What is does Optimum Arousal Theory propose about motivation? What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law? Be able to recognize examples.

Motivation depends on individual baseline for arousal and arousal produced by engaging in a certain activity.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal.

What is Maslow's theory of motivation? Know all relevant terminology and be able to recognize examples.

What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? Be able to recognize examples.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation to behave in a certain way because the behavior itself is satisfying and enjoyable.
Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation to behave in a certain way to gain an external reward or avoid punishment.

What is self-determination theory? Be able to recognize examples.

Suggests that people are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.

What is self-regulation? What is need for achievement? What is self-efficacy? Be able to recognize examples.

Self-Regulation: Process by which an individual effortfully controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives.
Need for Achievement: Positive desire to accomplish tasks and compete successfully with standards of excellence.

What are emotions? What factors contribute to an emotional response?

Feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs.
Subjective Experience: Feelings that come with the emotion; conscious experience of emotion.
Physical Changes (Arousal): Changes in heart rate, skin temperature, brain activation.
Cognitive Appraisals: Beliefs and understandings about why we feel the way we do.

What are the different types of emotions? Be able to recognize examples.

Primary: Basic emotions. Adaptive, culturally universal (anger, fear, sad, happy).
Secondary: Blends of basic emotions (guilt/shame).

How does the James-Lange theory explain emotion? Be able to recognize examples.

Believed that certain patterns of physical changes lead to the experience of certain emotions.
The emotion we experience follows the physiological arousal.

What is the facial feedback hypothesis? Be able to recognize examples.

Muscle patterns behind facial movements tied to subjective experience of emotions.

How does the Cannon-Bard theory explain emotion? Be able to recognize examples.

We experience the emotion and the physiological arousal simultaneously (yet independently) as we experience the stimulus.

What areas of the brain are involved in emotional responding? What are the roles of each part? How do they affect emotional responding?

Amygdala: receives direct input from senses, can generate response before processed by cortex.
- Processes emotional significance of stimuli
Prefrontal Cortex: Allows for more thought and planning in emotional reactions (emotional regulation).
- Left hemisphere activity related to positive emotions.
- Right hemisphere activity related to negative emotions.

How does the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory explain emotion? Be able to recognize examples.

Believe situation evokes a physical response (arousal) and a cognitive interpretation (emotion label).
The arousal we experience and cause we attribute it to lead to the experience of an emotion.

What is misattribution of arousal? What is excitation transfer? Be able to recognize examples.

It is possible to attribute the cause of the arousal incorrectly – leads to wrong emotional label.
Excitation Transfer - The idea that residual excitement from one stimulus can amplify the excitatory response created by another stimulus even if those two stimuli are cognitively interpreted as different emotions.

What are cultural display rules? Be able to apply to examples.

Cultural rules that dictate when, where, and how emotions can be appropriately expressed. Ex: Crying

What are some factors that impact happiness? Be able to recognize examples.

Biological factors:
- Genes and the brain both play a role.
- Heritability may be 50-80%
- Set point?
Obstacles
- Hedonic Treadmill: Idea that any aspect of life that enhances positive feelings is only likely to do so for a short time due to adaptation.