Xingezhuang Formation, China, 74 Million Years Ago

On the edge of Asia's Bohai Sea lies what is now the Shandong province of East China. This land will one day be recognized as part of the country's northern plains, situated on the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Like the rest of the Middle Kingdom, it also experiences distinct seasonal shifts from hot summers and cold winters.

Such regular changes in the environment are absent here in the Late Cretaceous. The climate regularly stays mild and humid year-round, as with much of the rest of the world at this time. This global warmth has resulted in a world where the ice caps have yet to form, causing what would be ice to contribute to higher sea levels. These oceans bleed into the edge of China, creating interconnected rivers and floodplains. The surface of the waters amongst them sparkles with the fading orange light of dusk.

Such changes from the modern eastern land have created one dominated by wetlands, marshes, and dense forests. A vast variety of plant life helps contribute to this lush environment, including conifers, cycads, ferns, and flowering plants. What we recognize as flowers themselves have yet to take on the expansive myriad of colors they come in today, mainly restricting themselves to magnolia-esque ones with white pedals. The trees are so thick and tightly packed that few rays of sunshine stab through the canopy into the shadows.

Despite such darkness, life is just as alive under the canopy. Ancient, rodent-like mammals scurry along the trees and forest floor, hunting for many of the insects here that make up the bulk of their diet. Their diverse prey here comes in the form of ancient ants, beetles, dragonflies, and termites.

In these forests, our early ancestors have competition. The trees and floor are full of lizards that also feast on the insects. In the air, ancient birds dart and flutter around on the hunt for the myriads of small arthropods. Undoubtedly, these feathered creatures are best adapted for hunting this type of prey as they're able to more easily snatch up even aerial insects.

Indeed, even small animals have managed to thrive here. Even so, they still live in the shadow of much larger residents. Their distant calls reverberate throughout the forest, sounding like a French horn, but with a haunting, creaky, almost metallic echo. In one patch of the forest, different cries can be heard, sounding almost like a tuba, but higher-pitched and lacking the echo of the other animal sounds. The source of these less-distant sounds emerges from a thicker batch of vegetation, rustling it as it brushes against the skin of two animals.

This is a pair of juvenile Shantungosaurus, Chinese members of the hadrosaur family of "duck-billed" dinosaurs. Only three years old, each of their robust yet lean bodies reach no more than 10 feet long. Four strong, well-developed legs support them as they walk through the greenery. The front legs are shorter, each ending in a single hoof-like nail. On the opposite end, the rear ones are both longer and more powerfully built, terminating in three-toed feet that spread wide to support their weight. Their forms are balanced by long, slightly tapered tails, having thick, muscular bases that narrow to the tip.

Just like other hadrosaurs, their proportionately large heads end in a keratinous, downward-curved beak. Hidden in their cheeks are over a thousand tightly packed, diamond-shaped teeth. Large eyes set wide apart on the sides of their heads give them a curious and alert expression. Their scaly skin is textured like a basketball and dyed in India green with darker, diagonal streaks of darker cadmium mottled in and a pale green underbelly. A thinner patch of their skin is present on the top of their snouts. With every sound they make, it inflates into a sac colored in a dull, muted red.

These are a brother and sister pair, Mei and Ming. The latter is distinguished by having a brighter-colored snout sac like other males. As young herd animals, traveling on their own would be considered suicide. However, these siblings have found themselves lost in this Chinese wilderness. Far from their adult size, they can be easy prey for local carnivores. Such will be their fates if they don't find their herd soon.

Mei and Ming's first approach to doing so is to locate them through noise. Many hadrosaurs are adapted to communicating through long distances, even producing sounds unique to each species. Thus, as they travel through the thick forest, they repeatedly let out their distinctive calls in the hopes at least one of their kind will respond.

For all their efforts, they find nothing they recognize. They find more different, higher-pitched bellows with an eerie, metallic-sounding reverberation to them. They are just like the fainter ones that already echo from farther away yet appear much louder, closer even.

The young siblings quickly glance at each other, stopping for only a moment before they begin sprinting. Their stance transforms from a slow quadrupedal one to one that's bipedal. Now supported by two muscular hind limbs, they traverse through the dense greenery at astonishing speed.

Before long, they exit the clutter of trees at the edge of a different part of their environment. The forest is greatly reduced, allowing full visibility of the sky, the descending sun mixing reddish orange shine with a faded blue backdrop. This light bounces and sparkles off the surface of a massive lake.

A different set of vegetation is present here as well. While trees are still present, they're mainly restricted to conifers resembling the modern bald cypress. Rather than growing from dry land, their roots are rested firmly under the lake water. Surrounding them are countless lily pads, often clustered together as they float atop the water's surface. Some patches are so thick that they hide what lies beneath the otherwise transparent liquid. Below them, aquatic ferns thrive, as well as clusters of green algae. Along the moist, muddy banks at the edge are horsetails, their jointed, reed-like stems dominating the landscape. They're present in the thicker forests and even marshlands nearby, but are much more common around bodies of water like this lake.

With the variety of plant life at this pond, it's essentially become the near-equivalent of a bai in Africa's Congo basin, though not quite as extensive. And just like bais, they attract much of the wildlife present in Late Cretaceous China. Such fauna includes, but isn't limited to the source of the sounds Mei and Ming have been following. Much to their dismay, the origin of such noises isn't what they had hoped for.

Present in large amounts are herds of the herbivorous Tsintaosaurus. They too are hadrosaurs, but they are a completely different species from Shantungosaurus. At up to 30 feet long and weighing 4 tons, they're triple the size of Mei and Ming, but are fairly average for hadrosaur size.

As related hadrosaurs, the Tsintaosaurus have a similar general appearance to the two Shantungosaurus. Though, as adults, their forms are more robust overall. What undoubtedly makes them stand apart from the twins is the crest atop their heads. At one point, it was thought these crests were slender and smooth, resembling a unicorn's horn. In reality, these long structures are much thicker, resembling a vertically elongated version of the North American Corythosaurus's crest. Their scaly skin is primarily auburn brown, mixed with beige horizontal streaks on the body, vertical ones lining their tails, and an underbelly of the same color. The mixed, reddish-blue on the crests of the males helps them stand out, having a glossy finish that catches the sunlight to further aid the fact. Such an elaborate feature allows them to attract the eyes of females during the mating season. What's universal for both females and males is that these structures are hollow and connected to their nasal cavities, allowing them to produce loud honking sounds that travel far.

The Tsintaosaurus are present all across the lake. Not only do they stand by the lakeside to feed on plants and drink the water, but some also bathe in it. The latter allows them a way to cool off from the hot temperatures of their environment.

But these "duckbills" aren't the only animals that have gathered here. The largest among them is undoubtedly Zhuchengtitan. These are a type of Chinese, long-necked sauropod, specifically in the titanosaur clade common in the Late Cretaceous. While this group contains some of the largest animals to ever walk the earth, they belong to a family within it called the saltasaurids which are smaller, up to 40 feet in the case of Zhuchengtitan. However, they make up for their comparatively diminutive stature by having bodies covered in armored osteoderms.

Aside from this, the rest of their forms are similar to those typically seen in other sauropods. This includes their pillar-like legs, barrel-shaped bodies, and long, powerful tails that gradually taper to a point. Incredibly long necks extend out gracefully from their shoulders. They perch up a relatively small, elongated, boxy head with a wide, flat snout. Rows of peg-like teeth line their jaws, allowing them to easily strip the branches of any tree they come across. Their scaly skin is primarily a shadowy gray with a tint of a lighter green. This is mixed in with the stone gray of the rounded, bony plates jutting out on their bodies.

With how large the Zhuchengtitans are, even the deepest parts of the lake only go up past their knees as they trudge through. In these deeper regions, they're able to easily reach the tall bald cypress-like trees on which they feed. Though, some bits that they bite off don't make it down their gullets, instead falling into the water below.

The Zhuchengtitans may be the largest animals here, but they're not quite as common as far as herd animals. Often groups would only range from 6 to 10 as opposed to the over thirty individuals within a typical Tsintaosaurus herd gathered here. Rivaling the latter in volume is another type of herd animal, one that can easily be considered the "rhino of the Cretaceous."

They are Sinoceratops, a Chinese member of the ceratopsid family of horned, herbivorous dinosaurs. Their bodies have the same general appearance as their relatives like Triceratops, being robust and muscular with powerful legs giving it a slightly forward-leaning posture and short, thick tails.

As with other ceratopsids, what sets Sinoceratops apart is their heads. Their massive skulls are dominated by a broad, bony frill extending backward from them. Large, knob-like horns are prominent on the tops and sides of these structures, giving them a spiked crown appearance. While they lack brow horns seen in some of their relatives, they do have short, stout nasal horns that point slightly backward. Their mouths have sharp, hooked, ebony-colored beaks, concealing batteries of leaf-shaped teeth. The scaly skin of these formidable animals is mostly charcoal brown with a light beige underbelly and mossy green that runs along their backs and onto their faces. For males, this coloration is mixed with a much brighter one seen on their frills, eye-like, golden yellow circles against a backdrop of scarlet red.

Compared to other ceratopsians, Sinoceratops are somewhat small, up to 16 feet long, and weigh two tons. Despite this, through a combination of their herd numbers and defensive displays, they give off a formidable appearance. Such benefits are necessary as they have much smaller, defenseless calves with them who have yet to even fully grow in their horns.

One animal here has defense in abundance but doesn't have to rely on herds for it. In a sense, it can be considered a solitary living tank. Mei and Ming quickly realize this as a large tail swings right in front of them. The twins immediately back away, narrowly avoiding being hit by it. They glance to their left finding the source of such a dangerous weapon.

It is a Sinankylosaurus, the "Chinese fused lizard." As its name suggests, it's a member of the ankylosaur family of armored herbivorous dinosaurs. Just like its many relatives, the top of its body is blanketed in bony plates of varying sizes, the largest forming a solid shield along its back and flanks. This rough, stone-like armor is also interspersed with sharp spikes along the sides and shoulders. The plates and spikes run down its body, shrinking near the end of its long, stiffened tail. At the tip rests a mass of fused bone in the shape of a club. Its powerful limbs mostly lack the signature plates and spikes, only having them where they meet its rotund body. Although its broad, flattened head is relatively small, it, too, is heavily armored to the point that its eyelids are made of tough bone. Its short blunt face ends in a beaked mouth filled with rows of leaf-shaped teeth. Primarily, its scaly skin is a reddish-brown mixed in with the dark gray of its spikes and plates as well as a pale white underbelly.

With its armor, spikes, and clubbed tail, the Sinankylosaurus is a formidable presence, even as a solitary animal. Thus, Mei and Ming keep their distance from the living tank. This is one herbivore they'd rather not get in the way of.

As they step back, the siblings look around the lake in search of others of their kind. They also call out repeatedly, their sounds reverberating across the pond around them. Through all their efforts, they find no signs of any other Shantungosaurus. Soon, they give up, lowering their heads as they walk back into the thicker underbrush.

***

Within hours, night befalls, encapsulating the land in near impenetrable darkness. Even the natural greens of the vegetation are tinted in the black permeating their side of the prehistoric world. Much of it lays silent as many of the more active daytime animals have gone to sleep. Animals like Sinoceratops and Tsintaosaurus have become especially loud with their deep snores permeating the forest.

In the middle of one batch of these resting dinosaurs lies Mei and Ming, slumbering under a large tree surrounded by cycads. They have yet to find their herd, but sleep is equally important to these young hadrosaurs. However, each also occasionally takes turns keeping watch of their surroundings.

Even the night doesn't keep the environment's cacophony dormant. Throughout the thick greenery, crickets are making their presence known. Their high chirps and trills can be heard in every corner imaginable. Some have sounds coming from the shrubbery around the herbivores while others originate from much farther away.

Amid this commotion, one group of animals can pick them off in the darkness, mammals. While they have much competition during the day, it's at night that they hunt most effectively. Thanks to being nocturnal, they've evolved senses that allow them to navigate the area at a time when other species would struggle.

Mammals, however, aren't the only hunters active after sunset. In the shadows of the forest, something much larger lurks through, careful not to rustle the vegetation around it. Fleshy pads at the bottoms of its three-toed feet conceal the sounds of its footsteps. Even when the herbivores look in its direction, it can easily conceal itself by standing still. Only when attention is away from it does the hidden animal step closer to its target.

Near a thick batch of lower vegetation lies a young Tsintaosaurus. Only half its adult size, it hasn't even fully grown its head crest yet. For now, its unique structure is no more than a small bump on its head. Like the rest of its herd, this juvenile lies fast asleep. In such a deep slumber, it remains unaware of the carnivore standing above it.

Under the middle tree, Mei stands watch while Ming continues to snooze. Her eyelids grow heavier by the second, prompting her to nudge her brother. All she's met with is ignorance as the young male continues sleeping. With little left to keep her awake, the female Shantungosaurus lowers her head and closes her eyes, allowing her mind to drift out of consciousness.

This state only lasts a second as she's almost immediately jolted awake. A piercing squeal reverberates through the forest, prompting both Mei and Ming to spring their heads up. They spin their heads around finding the Tsintaosaurus surrounding them have started running away, filling the forest with loud honks and bellows. The twins stand up in an attempt to peer around them.

It isn't long before the herd clears away, revealing the source of their fear. Where once laid a juvenile Tsintaosaurus is now a trail of blood staining the muddy ground. Mei and Ming peer further upward to find its most likely cause. Surrounded by the plentiful trees, a faint shadow can be seen. It appears like a large animal carried by two massive legs. Hanging from the front of it is the lifeless silhouette of the young Tsintaosaurus. The dark shapes of both predator and prey vanish into the darkness as the former trudges away. All Mei and Ming can do is follow the direction of the Tsintaosaurus herd in search of a new place to sleep. For many carnivores of this ancient world, hadrosaurs are prey.

***

Morning emerges, bringing with it the gift of sunshine. All that remains of the night before are mere shadows cast by the trees. Now, they have also started to move. Soft winds brush against the trees and other vegetation, causing it to waver and rustle.

Through this greenery, Mei and Ming step through, now following a herd of Sinoceratops. With the scare of last night's encounter, the twins have begun to prefer more defensive company. Thankfully, the horned herbivores don't mind being followed by the wandering young Shantungosaurus.

At the moment, something more important is the focus of the herd. They stop at a canal of exposed mud with small puddles trickled in it. There may not be substantial water left to drink, but there is something equally as important here. The mud has trapped several minerals, on which the Sinoceratops start to lick. Elements inside this wet material such as phosphorus and certain bio-metals provide nutritional benefits that vegetation alone wouldn't provide. Not only will it strengthen the bones of these herbivores, but it will also purge toxins that develop as a result of their diet. Birds take advantage of these mineral licks, too, with parents even scooping some up to feed to their nest-ridden chicks.

Mei and Ming, however, don't join in on the mineral licking. Instead, they start to call out into the air. Whenever there's a mineral lick like this, rivers wouldn't be too far away, and potentially other Shantungosaurus.

They only make a few calls before they hear a response. This sound is terribly similar to their own but at a much lower pitch. The twins peer down the eastern end of the canal, the origin of these deeper calls.

At long last, Mei and Ming have found the answers they've been looking for. At the same time, something else has found them. At the western end of the mineral lick lies a rounded puddle of mud, surrounded by thick vegetation. In this greenery, two carnivores peer at herbivores, waiting for the moment to strike.

This is a pair of Zhuchengtyrannus, the top predators of the area. These are Asian members of the famous tyrannosaur family of carnivorous dinosaurs. Their robust yet lithe bodies are held up by a pair of strong, slender legs. Each one ends in a three-toed foot tipped with sharp claws. Two-fingered forelimbs are present but proportionately small. Long flexible tails help to balance their large, boxy, yet streamlined heads. Lining their powerful jaws is a set of ivory-colored, serrated, dagger-like teeth. Their smooth scaly skin is primarily a mix of black and dark olive-green mixed with a blotched, spotty pattern of brownish-yellow bleeding from the underbelly. Additionally, the tops of their bodies have a coat of gray feathers, running from the base of their heads before stopping at the base of their tails.

Although only adolescents, each of these Zhuchengtyrannus stands large at 20 feet in length, double the size of Mei or Ming. They remain almost frozen for a while as they stare at the two youngsters calling out. This stillness gradually shifts as one of the tyrannosaurs begins to step forward. Toes press onto the ground, lightly rustling the dead leaves beneath them.

Although a subtle noise, it's enough to prompt Ming to turn around. Upon spotting the two carnivores, he lets out a higher-pitched honk before retreating with Mei. Some of the Sinoceratops look back and also charge away in the same direction. Immediately, the two Zhuchengtyrannus burst out from the foliage, sprinting after the herd.

With their long, slender legs, they can easily catch up to the herbivores. Mei and Ming continue running but something forces them to scatter frantically. All of a sudden, the Sinoceratops stop and scramble in various directions. The twins swerve and maneuver around them to get past.

Having exited the herd, the young Shantungosaurs saw what the horned herbivores had done. None of the Sinoceratops can outrun the more nimbly built Zhuchengtyrannus, so they do the next best thing. The adults have formed a defensive circle around the much smaller calves. This formation ensures that their offspring are completely protected as long as they remain in the center. In the meantime, the adults wave their heads around to deter the predators, who can only search the circle for an opening to exploit.

Meanwhile, Mei and Ming attempt to squeeze into the middle of the herd. Alas, the Sinoceratops won't even allow them inside. With no options left, the twins retreat toward the eastern end of the canal. As they do, one of the Zhuchengtyrannus spots the young Shantungosaurus sprinting away. The carnivores promptly leave the Sinoceratops herd, instead dashing toward the twins.

In the middle of their retreat, the two youngsters hear a pair of low, raspy bellows. Mei looks backward, finding the Zhuchengtyrannus tagging not far behind. She turns forward attempting to run faster.

Suddenly, the twins' running begins to slow down. Their run through the canal brings them into the deeper waters of a nearby river. Without looking, they enter with a splash, finding their bodies swallowed up to their necks. Now trapped in such deep water, the twins are barely able to touch the bottom while keeping their heads up.

Additionally, they are not the only ones in the river. Around the swimming Shantungosaurus, the hissing mouths of ancient crocodilians spring open from the water. They're similar in both appearance and size to modern alligators, and thus don't pose a direct threat to Mei or Ming. Even so, their occupancy of the river is enough to frighten the youngsters into attempting to travel further to the other side.

As they do, more and more crocs pop up, some even swimming around them. Jaws close and snap around them, creating white splashes on the surface. Fortunately, it isn't long before the water appears less and less deep. Now being much closer to the edge, Mei and Ming can climb out of the river and onto the eastern side.

Upon emerging onto dry land once again, familiar, raspy bellows start to fill the air. The twins look back, finding the Zhuchengtyrannus have started to cross the river, provoking the crocs in the process. It's unknown how long the predators will be preoccupied, thus the young Shantungosaurus continue on their journey.

Through the increasingly thinning woods, Mei and Ming's legs carry them as fast as possible. Wet mud squishes and splashes beneath them, staining them in drops of brown. Not even the occasional slapping of branches and leaves is enough to stop them.

Even so, their run comes to a sudden stop. In the middle of a muddy clearing, the twins find something unexpected. It appears like a collection of blood-stained bones crunched and gnawed on. Few bits of red meat remain, clinging to the partial skeleton. The only clue to its identity is a crushed skull resembling that of a young Tsintaosaurus.

Flies buzz around it, picking off what little flesh is left. However, they begin to retreat from the emergence of a bigger meat-eater. A massive, three-toed foot steps onto the carcass, crushing the remaining skeleton. It appears similar to that of the two predators they are running from, but much larger.

Mei and Ming peer upward to find the identity of the animal in front of them, an adult Zhuchengtyrannus. It has forgone the slenderer build of the adolescents in favor of a much heavier and bulkier one. Not only is its skin thicker and pebblier, but its feathers have drastically been reduced to sparse, barely noticeable filaments. Most frighteningly, the skull has become even more massive and heavily built. Both its body and face are marred with bite scars.

At 36 feet long, 13 feet tall, and weighing over 6 and a half tons, this full-grown female is easily the largest tyrannosaur known from the continent of Asia. Compared to the rest of its family, it's only outsized by Mongolia's Tarbosaurus and North America's T-Rex. The magnitude of such an animal only further dwarfs Mei and Ming.

Immediately, the twins turn around and start to retreat. As they do, they're brought to a stop by the arrival of the two adolescents. Their hissing and bellowing frighten the young Shantungosaurus into stepping backward. Caught between two adolescent Zhuchengtyrannus and a fully grown adult, not even escape is possible. All the two youngsters can do now is await the inevitable.

Suddenly, a low, tuba-like call fills the air. The tyrannosaurs peer upward searching the area around them. As they do, something massive comes rushing from the foliage around them, bigger than even the adult Zhuchengtyrannus.

Standing over Mei and Ming is the largest animal non-sauropod of Late Cretaceous Shandong, an adult Shantungosaurus. It's grown to be much more robust than the youngsters as well as having proportionately smaller eyes and a more elongated head. The skin has also become primarily a dark cadmium green with bits of India green mottled all over its back.

At 56 feet long and weighing over 18 tons, this Shantungosaurus easily outsizes the Zhuchengtyrannus pack. Even the adult predator backs away in response to its loud, honking bellows. The carnivores reply with hisses as they circle the massive herbivore. Undeterred, the adult Shantungosaurus only continues bellowing as it stomps its front limbs onto the ground.

Abruptly, the adolescents rush to the giant herbivore only to be swiped away by its tail. The adult carnivore also attacks, snapping its jaws repeatedly. In response, the massive Shantungosaurus rears upward, kicking the Zhuchengtyrannus with its front limbs. The tyrannosaur tumbles backward slightly upon being struck at the skull.

Each of the younger predators stands back up, slowly and with a great wobble. Blood has begun to drip from their mouths. Although their tussle with the giant hadrosaur was brief, the Zhuchengtyrannus have already sustained injuries. Even the adult has lost some of its teeth.

Finally, the tyrannosaurs retreat, vanishing into the thick greenery. Now alone, the adult Shantungosaurus lowers its head to Mei and Ming. Immediately, they greet it with a series of gentle rubs. This isn't just any adult of their species, but their most dependable form of protection: their mother.

Newly reunited, the family trudges through vegetation around them, fearless of any other potential opposition. Straight away, they're welcomed to the sight of the rest of the herd, over 40 strong. The females and their calves appear similar to the family, but the few males stand out for having a nose sac colored in a much brighter red. Many adults also have scars and healed-up injuries from as small as scratches to as large as bites taken from their backs. Promptly, the three Shantungosaurs enter the traveling herd, sticking close to the center of it.

Throughout their time on planet Earth, hadrosaurs have become a common prey item for large predators such as Zhuchengtyrannus. Their lack of body armor, horns, and other defensive adaptations have seemingly made them easier targets than the likes of ankylosaurs or ceratopsids. Thus, these herbivores more often rely on numbers and speed to avoid becoming food. Despite this, larger members such as Shantungosaurus have proven that these "duckbills" are more than capable of deterring threats from sheer size and bulk alone. One day, Mei and Ming will attain such a staggering immensity, but it will be a long time coming for what were once the stray spawns.