Oldman Formation, Canada, 78 Million Years Ago

Just north of the land of the United States lies what is now the southern part of Canada's Alberta province. In our modern day, its landscape is dominated by some of North America's most stunning natural scenery. Such marvelous wonders of the Western world include freshwater lakes, far-reaching prairies, fossil-rich badlands, and the towering Rocky Mountains. This famous range of spring rock formations stretches nearly 3,000 miles from the northern parts of Alberta to New Mexico.

However, this is the time of the Late Cretaceous when the awe-inspiring sight of this land has yet to take form. Thanks to the formation of the Western Interior Seaway, the North American continent has been split up into two major landmasses. While Appalachia remains a rounded, isolated land to the east, Laramidia is much thinner, consisting of the westernmost stretches of Canada, the United States, and Mexico.

Waters from the shallow North American sea bleed into areas such as Alberta, creating a network of rivers, small lakes, and floodplains. Dominating this landscape is a variety of lush vegetation, prominently a thick canopy of ginkgo, sequoia, elm, pine, and white-flowered magnolia trees. Much of this taller plant life is draped in flowering vine plants. Below these canopies is a vast bed of ferns, shrubs, and tree ferns, blanketing the mossy, fungus-ridden ground. This lower vegetation becomes more prominent in the open fields, towered over by much fewer trees.

Indeed, the diversity of plant life here brings with it a collage of greens. It's only with the arrival of late evening that this colorful landscape has started to become tinted in the coming darkness. As the sun retreats to the horizon, a mixed hue of gray, orange, and pink is painted into the sky above.

Even as the brightness of the daytime fades away, the landscape is still very much alive. The majority of it comes in the form of its smallest residents. Beetles, dragonflies, and bees buzz around the area, the latter frequently stopping to feed on nectar from flowering plants. More silent ants and millipedes travel along the ground in search of loose pits of vegetation to feed on. Spiders have constructed webs among some of the trees, waiting for any flying insect that would be trapped on the reflective, glue-like silk. In the vegetation of the fields below, Ticks lie patiently for any larger animal to attach themselves to.

With the nearing night, a new set of creatures emerges. Easiest to hear are crickets, emerging in their thousands across the forests and fields. Their recognizable chirps swell throughout the area, drowning out much of the other noise in the process.

Another insect species crops up too, making their presence known not by sound, but by sight. Thousands of small orbs of light swarm and float across the fields, the origin of which being creatures we know as lightning bugs, a.k.a. fireflies. As they do every summer, males emerge to perform their flashing bioluminescent displays to show off to potential mates. Females in turn produce their own lights as a way of luring in these competitive suitors.

However, it's not just insects that are thriving in this landscape. The fields are permeated with a plethora of dinosaurian life. They may be of different groups, but they're connected by one single aspect, herbivory.

The largest of these species is Maiasaura, a well-known member of the "duck-billed" hadrosaur family. Like others within this famous group, they sport a keratinous beak at the tips of their mouths, hiding hundreds of tightly packed, diamond-shaped cheek teeth. Their relatively flat, elongated heads also have bony, ridge-like crests above each of their large eyes. These herbivores' robust, heavy-set bodies stretch up to 30 feet long, ending in a long, sturdy tail. Two very different pairs of legs help support their 4-ton bulk. The front ones are shorter yet strong, ending in broad, keratinous structures resembling hooves.

Meanwhile, the rear legs are longer and well-muscled, ending instead in flat, three-toed feet. Such a difference in leg arrangement allows them to easily transition from walking on all fours and running on their hind limbs. Their skin is primarily reddish-brown with a pattern of white vertical, backward-curving stripes mottled in and an underbelly of the same color.

Small, 4-foot-long calves are present below their towering parents. On top of their reduced size, they also have proportionately larger eyes, more rounded heads, stockier bodies, stubbier limbs, and lighter-colored skin with fainter stripes. Even their sounds are drastically different, producing soft, piping calls as opposed to the deeper honks and creaking grunts of the adults. Each of the Maiasaura parents stays close to their respective offspring, guiding them through the densely packed vegetation fields while staying alert to any signs of danger. Such attentive care for their young has rightfully earned this species the name that means "good mother lizard."

Smaller animals join these larger hadrosaurs in the form of Struthiomimus. These 12-foot-long animals are part of the ornithomimosaurs, a family of dinosaurs that resemble modern ratites. Even the name Struthiomimus reflects this resemblance, meaning "ostrich mimic."

Like other members of its peculiar family, they have thin, slender bodies supported by a pair of long powerful legs. Each one ends with three-toed feet tipped with sharp claws, reminiscent of a bird. Counterbalancing their forms are long, stiffened tails that taper to a point. Elongated, muscular, slightly arched necks support a small head with a long, narrow, toothless beak. This adaptation grants them an expanded diet, not only consisting of plants but also insects. Much of their forms are covered in a dense coat of feathers, except their beaks, hands, and feet. The body feathers are a russet brown with females having a sandy beige on their arm and tail fan feathers. Males have a darker body coat with a brighter scarlet red on their arms and tails.

Among the Maiasauras and Struthiomimus is an animal whose size lies in between, one who lives a more solitary lifestyle. In the middle of these herd-living dinosaurs is a Chasmosaurus. It's a member of the famed ceratopsid family of horned dinosaurs, a common group seen in Late Cretaceous North America. Although twice as long as a modern Sumatran rhino, its size is more on the medium side compared to its many distinct relatives such as Triceratops.

As is seen with other ceratopsids, the body of Chasmosaurus is stocky and robust, ending in a thick stubby tail and supported by four short yet powerful, pillar-like legs. What makes this horned dinosaur unique from other members of its formidable group is its skull. Like its most famous relative, it sports three horns on its face. However, the brow horns are shorter on Chasmosaurus as opposed to Triceratops, while the nasal horn is more pronounced. Additionally, the frill on its skull is much longer, having a near-rectangular configuration with a shallow U-shaped indent at the top. The edges of this thin, bony structure are lined with small, triangular bumps, giving it a serrated, shield-like appearance. At the front of this head is a parrot-like beak with which it bites off vegetation before its batteries of leaf-shaped cheek teeth shred it. Its scaly skin is primarily taupe brown with a light beige underbelly and russet brown on its back and head. As a male, the interior of its frill is a varied collage of yellow and orange with red veining.

Joined together, each of these herbivorous species adds different sounds to the ambiance of the open fields. Struthiomimus are very bird-like, communicating through coos and trills. Maiasauras produce much lower bellows, rumbles, and moo-like calls. Chasmosaurus is much quieter, only making the occasional grunt, sniff, or snort.

Not all that reside in this expanse of low vegetation are here to feed on it. Unbeknownst to the many herbivores, a predator lurks among them. In the cover of the dense greenery and the coming darkness of night, it remains hidden from their sight. Even its footsteps are silent enough to not alert the large dinosaurs around it.

This is Sinopa, a female Dromaeosaurus. Her kind is the namesake of the dromaeosaur family of carnivorous dinosaurs, better known as the "raptors." Two long, slender legs help her to slowly and softly traverse her environment. Each one ends in a robust, bird-like foot, having three clawed toes that include the famous sickle-shaped talon. Her slender yet powerful body is balanced by a long, stiff tail. A moderately lengthened neck supports a boxy head with two golden-hued eyes, a short snout, and jaws lined with sharp, recurved teeth. Much of her body was blanketed in a coat of feathers. Primarily, they're colored black with a series of white bands spread across them. Such a pattern is more tightly packed on her underbelly as well as the longer feathers that hang from her arms and the tip of her tail. Only her mouth, hands, and feet lack this plumage, instead revealing scaly yellow skin.

Thanks to her dark plumage, Sinopa easily blends into the encroaching darkness of night. Staying low to the ground allows her to fully hide herself in the dense vegetation around her. Her lightweight form ensures the silence of her approach. This combination of factors allows her to be a stealthy hunter.

This time, however, Sinopa isn't here to hunt. Being only one and a half the size of a coyote, she poses little threat to the larger dinosaurs around her. Additionally, the Chasmosaurus has a formidable defense on its side, Maiasauras sheer size and bulk, and Struthiomimus can simply outrun even this swift predator. So, rather than preying upon any of these animals, the Dromaeosaur's goal is to pass by without being seen. What she seeks lies beyond fields like this, where the trees grow their thickest.

***

Before long, Sinopa finds herself trudging through the thicker woods of her Canadian environment. Here, what little is left of daylight barely shines through the looming shadow of countless trees. Normally, these woods would be filled with the sight and sounds of early birds chirping, tweeting, and fluttering about. With the night growing closer, many of them have retreated to slumber, leaving only a few awake before the daylight inevitably dies.

This fading shine reveals the target of Sinopa's travel. This soft, orange light reveals a small clearing, abundant in low vegetation, but absent in trees. In the middle of this otherwise empty forest patch is a Chasmosaurus. Unlike any that'd be seen in the vegetation fields, this one lies lifeless on the ground. No breaths enter or exit its mouth and its eyes remain wide open yet frozen. Death had long claimed this ceratopsid, but no signs of predation are present. Whatever took its life was likely another natural event like old age.

This has drawn Sinopa out here. Like a hook to a fish, the smell of the dead Chasmosaurus has lured her to its location. Her finely tuned sense of smell, shared with others in her family, only aids her in tracking the corpse down.

This also means that this female is not alone. As she slowly approaches the body of the Chasmosaurus, Sinopa starts to glance around her. Her eyes spot four other Dromaeosaurs creeping through dense vegetation toward the carcass.

Among them is a male named Matwau. He's distinguished from Sinopa by his slightly larger size and an abundance of scratches on the skin of his face. These included white, healed-up gashes across his left eye.

Like Sinopa, Matwau and these other Dromaeosaurs were drawn here by the aroma of the deceased Chasmosaurus. The lingering stench is so strong that no nearby meat-eater could miss it. Thus, they easily gravitate to it as a chance to feed.

Unfortunately, Dromaeosaurs aren't keen on sharing such a bounty. Upon spotting one another, the approach of the raptors shifts from a gentle creeping to a swift sprinting. Three of the predators stop 10 feet away from their quarry to tackle, claw, and bite at one another.

Sinopa manages to zoom by them, but so does Matwau. Matching one another's speed, they both manage to arrive at the fallen Chasmosaurus. As they start to stare down at one another, they greet each other only by growling and flapping their arms. This is quickly added to with hissing snaps of their mouths and shrill shrieks. The two even start to swipe their claws, each nearly grazing the other's skin.

In their squabble, the rivaling Dromaeosaurs are oblivious to an approaching threat. Another type of predator has been drawn to the scent of the deceased Chasmosaurus, one much larger than Sinopa, Matwau, and the other raptors. Their low, rumbling growls begin to permeate the clearing. Branches lightly pass along their enormous forms. It's only with a single deep, raspy bellow that the feuding Dromaeosaurs are alerted to the presence of giants. Sinopa, Matwau, and the other raptors pause their fight, turning their attention to a pair of tyrants.

Towering above them are a pair of 3-ton Daspletosaurus, the "dreadful lizards." These are members of the tyrannosaur family, a group of predatory dinosaurs that are becoming a common sight in Late Cretaceous Asia and North America. At up to 9 feet tall and 30 feet long, this species dominates the later continent as its current largest land predator, a title that will last until the evolution of T-Rex.

Like the famous namesake of their family, Daspletosaurus have powerful, barrel-chested bodies supported by muscular legs. In contrast, their arms with two-fingered hands are much smaller yet still strong. Long, stiff, sturdy tails tapering to a point act as a balance for their enormous forms. Thick, burly necks 3-foot-long, blocky heads with broad snouts and deep-set eye sockets. Bony ridges grow above each of their eyes, appearing bright, burnt umber on the male but a dull gray on the female. Thick, serrated, dagger-like teeth line their powerful jaws. Their scaly skin is primarily xiketic black with jet black around their faces and a light beige on their underbellies.

Five to two, the Dromaeosaurs outnumber the Daspletosaurus pair. Even so, they steadily creep backward from the shadow of the approaching tyrannosaurs. Only Sinopa remains, standing atop the dead Chasmosaurus as she shrieks and spreads out her arms. This is put to a sudden stop as the male Daspletosaurus lunges toward her. She swiftly escapes, only narrowly avoiding the jaws of the larger carnivore.

Like other tyrannosaurs, Daspletosaurus has a well-developed sense of smell, allowing the animal to easily locate the deceased Chasmosaurus through scent alone. With a bite force of up to 3 and a half tons per square inch, they even crush bone as easily as twigs as they begin to bite into it. Sniffs, snorts, squishes, and crunches fill the air as they wolf down the contents of the carcass.

As they feed, Matwau gently creeps toward the corpse, his jaws inching ever closer to a piece of its exposed flesh. This approach is quickly halted by the male Daspletosaurus letting out a bellow at him, prompting the raptor to sprint away. Needless to say, the carcass now belongs to the tyrannosaurs.

Matwau's retreat stops in the woods at the edge of the clearing. He's joined by Sinopa and the other raptors, all glaring at him as they begin to snarl. Without a larger meal to pine over, the Dromaeosaurus must now search for another way to quench their hunger.

For a moment, their snarling gradually grows into silence as a new sound begins to be heard. Throughout the woods, deep, loud, trumpet-like honks travel from an unseen distance. These almost metallic-sounding calls reverberate for miles, even beyond the Dromaeosaurs. Lured by their curiosity, the raptors immediately follow.

Before long, they arrive from a steep incline within the woods, overlooking the mossy, partly vegetated path below. It's from here they spot a passing herd of two larger animals traveling together. While both are herbivores, they're each unique in appearance.

The source of the calls are Corythosaurus, distant relatives of Maiasaura. They too are hadrosaurs, but belong to a separate subfamily called the lambeosaurines, known for their hollow bony crests adorning their heads. Being hollow and connected to their nasal cavities, these peculiar structures allow them to produce calls that can travel for miles. The crests of Corythosaurus greatly resemble a Greek Corinthian, inspiring their name which means "helmet lizard." These striking shapes grow from the top of a head that greatly resembles those of other hadrosaurs, including their signature keratinous bills at the end. Even their bulky bodies are barely different from what's seen on the likes of Maiasaura. What sets them apart is coloration, primarily bronze brown with darker, shadow gray splotches mottled all over their body and a tan underbelly. Males stand out through the colors of their crest, benign a mix of golden yellow and safety orange.

These large, 30-foot-long hadrosaurs travel a different dinosaur entirely. Although only 20 feet long, Wendiceratops make up for this lacking stature with their defensive formidability. Like Chasmosaurus, these are members of the horned ceratopsid family. Not only are they slightly larger, but their heads are also wildly different. The frills are much shorter with curved spikes lining the edges, giving them a crown-like display. Their horns are also much larger, the brow ones curling downward slightly as they grow out above their eyes. The nose horns are peculiar compared to other ceratopsians, resembling a boat rudder with a blunt top. Aside from these distinguishing features, the rest of their forms are none too different from their other relatives like Triceratops. Their bodies are robust and stocky, their legs thick, their tails stumpy, and their mouths end with a parrot-like beak. The scaly skin of these ceratopsids is primarily grayish-green with abalone underbellies, and darker, mossy green mottled on their backs and faces. Males are set apart by having a mix of teal blue and emerald green at the center of their frills as opposed to the plain gray on females.

Each of these herbivores alone is too large for the Dromaeosaurs to take on, let alone in a large herd like this. However, there is more here than just full-grown adults. Both species have much smaller youngsters along their side. The young Corythosaurs are no more than 6 feet in length while the young Wendiceratops are only 4. They also have their own differences from the adults, Corythosaurus have more rounded heads and only a bump in place of their crests while Wendiceratops have shorter frills and gray stubs for their horns. Both species also have larger eyes and softer skin colors in these juvenile forms.

Being smaller and lacking in defense, the youngsters of both species will make a perfect meal for Sinopa, Matwau, and the other Dromaeosaurs. But this vulnerability means that the adults will be fiercely protective of them. For this, all the raptors need to do is wait for the right time to strike.

***

Night has fallen in the ancient Canadian wilderness. All forms of light have been replaced by the moon and a few fireflies floating across the forest floor. Cricket chirps have also become more common with the emergence of the thicker darkness.

There's also a different kind of sound heard in the middle of these woods, deep inhales and exhales. Their source is found scattered amongst the lower vegetation of the forest floor. Both Wendiceratops and Corythosaurus have begun to slumber, exhausted from an already long migration from their nesting grounds. In this state, they experience a calm rest for the first time in days.

However, one species is on more of an alert than the other, the Corythosaurus. Occasionally through their lighter state of sleep, they briefly wake up to observe and listen to their surroundings. Their eyesight may be clouded by the night, but they have another advantage. Thanks to well-developed inner ears, they can hear much better than the Wendiceratops. Such an adaptation allows Corythosaurus and other hadrosaurs to receive each other's calls from longer distances, but also allows them to pick up other, quieter sounds. If they hear anything that sounds like a threat, all they'll need to do is sound off, alerting the herd.

Despite this, Corythosaurus won't be able to do much outside of running from and occasionally outsizing predators. That's the advantage of traveling with Wendiceratops. Their horns allow them the perfect method of offense against would-be attackers. While Corythosaurus may be the alarm, Wendiceratops are the attack dogs.

These advantages allow for a greater combined defense. However, that doesn't stop them from being watched from the cover of darkness. Gently, moving through the trees, Sinopa, Matwau, and the other Dromaeosaurs creep toward the herd. They're careful not to step on any twigs or rustle any leaves loudly as doing so can easily alert a Corythosaurus.

Hunting at night also gives them an advantage that neither herbivores have. Like other raptor species, Dromaeosaurus have large eye sockets, allowing them enhanced vision in low-like conditions. This form of night vision will greatly benefit their nocturnal avian relatives such as owls.

Occasionally, a single Corythosaurus will still poke its head up to observe its surroundings. To avoid it, all the raptors have to do is simply stand still. Using their darker-colored feathers, they blend in with the darkness around them, effectively becoming near invisible in the night. However, such cover won't serve them as well when closer to the herd, prompting them to be even more cautious as they draw closer.

Eventually, the Dromaeosaurs manage to step within the slumbering herd. Their goal, the vulnerable juveniles, lies at the very center of the herbivores. To reach them, they'll still need to navigate around the much larger adults.

Initially, their stalking remains Successful, but another resident of these woods starts to appear: mosquitoes. Like they do in the modern day, their time here is spent sucking on the blood of any unsuspecting animal, including sleeping dinosaurs. Their feeding is often silent and even painless to an extent, but the same can't be said for their flying. The high-pitched sounds of them hovering about are an irritation to all that listen to them, even more so if they're close to an animal's ear.

This obnoxious sound startles to rattle one large male Wendiceratops, causing it to grunt and rumble as it twists and turns all about. Unfortunately, Sinopa is not far from it. Her first instinct was to hide behind another sleeping Wendiceratops to avoid being spotted by the bull. Its movements fade, but its eyes appear to partly be open. The bull's eyelids quickly shut as it drifts back into a deep slumber.

Now, Sinopa is free to approach her target, a young Corythosaurus. Having no horns or defensive frills, this juvenile will be the perfect focus of her hunt. Leisurely, the female Dromaeosaurus steps toward the sleeping youngster, maintaining her caution. Now standing over her quarry, she readies her toe claw for the kill.

Suddenly, the silence is shattered by a high-pitched honk. Sinopa peers forward to find Matwau on top of a Wendiceratops calf. He claws and bites at its skin as it attempts to knock him off like a bucking bronco. It's only thanks to the talons on his toes and the flapping of his arms that he's able to remain balanced atop the baby ceratopsid.

The youngster's cries of fear don't go unnoticed as it gains the attention of a Corythosaurus. It sounds off a loud bellow, prompting all the adults to emerge from their sleep abruptly. Chaos ensues as the many herbivores begin to charge away from the predators. Sinopa only manages to puncture a few parts of the young Corythosaurus before it escapes. Meanwhile, Matwau is sent hurling by the skull of a mother Wendiceratops, allowing its calf to join in the mass retreat.

By the time Sinopa and Matwau stand back up, the herd has already run 10s of feet away from them. However, the herbivores still aren't out of reach of the Dromaeosaurs. These predators have another secret advantage up their sleeves... speed.

In a sudden burst, Sinopa, Matwau, and the rest of the raptors start to sprint through the forest. Like other members of the dromaeosaur family such as Velociraptor, their sleek, agile forms are well-equipped for fast movements. In the case of Dromaeosaurus, this allows them to move at speeds of up to 30 miles per hour, easily catching up to the fleeing herd. The feathers on their arms also help them to effectively steer while maintaining their velocity.

Air rushes across the raptors' bodies as they reach the rear of the herd. There they find the young Corythosaurus that Sinopa targeted earlier. Though only lightly marred by punctures and scratches, its bleeding wounds still cause enough pain to hinder her running speed. This causes her to slow down toward the approaching raptors.

It's Sinopa and Matwau that are closest to the youngster, now neck and neck. They push ever forward, nearing striking distance of the little Corythosaurus. Finally, both leading raptors spring off the ground and onto their quarry. The youngster lets out a high-pitched honk as it tumbles to the ground with the two predators on its body. Their rolling only lasts for a few seconds before Sinopa and Matwau manage to pin down their prey.

Quickly, the other raptors catch up, gripping their jaws onto the legs and tail of the Corythosaurus. Matwau bites down on the young hadrosaur's mouth, hindering its ability to breathe. Sinopa has the deadliest task, delivering the killing blow. She starts by pressing her foot on the youngster's neck. Then, she uses her signature toe claw to puncture its jugular. Quickly, the Corythosaurus' honks turn into a fading wheeze. Its sounds and struggling kicks fade into stillness as life leaves its body. Finally, as one last measure, Sinopa bites onto the flesh of the young hadrosaur's neck.

One member of the herd observes the youngster's fate, an adult female Corythosaurus. Alas, it's too late for her to save the abandoned youngster. All she can do now is leave with the rest of the herd.

Out of this tragedy, the Dromaeosaurus have a plentiful meal. They gorge on the meat of the carcass as if there's no tomorrow. Rather than fighting with one another over the spoils of their victory, they join together in their feast albeit on different parts of the dead Corythosaurus. Even Sinopa and Matwau partake in this unspoken truce.

Very few animals in the natural world rely on packs to take down their prey. Even raptors like Dromaeosaurus occasionally partake in loose, temporary gangs when faced with larger game like Corythosaurus and Wendiceratops. Their struggle was not without difficulties, particularly in a lack of true coordination, but Sinopa, Matwau, and their pack mates proved to be more than worthy of taking on the task. Only together could victory have ever been attained for the night stalkers.