Süntel Formation, Germany, 150 Million Years Ago

The whitish-yellow shine of the morning sun radiates from a clear blue sky. Its arrival signals a new day in Jurassic Europe. Below the heavens, the daylight sparkles and reflects off the continent's most common sight at this time: the sea.

It may not look like it, but this will one day be the land of northern Germany. In the modern day, it's a temperate, hilly landscape dominated by forests. Mixed in would be the Süntel Mountains and its surrounding limestone-rich rock formations.

This familiar scenery is unseen in the Late Jurassic. As with much of Europe during this period, it's a series of islands spread across a warm, tropical sea. Much of this difference can be attributed to a lack of ice caps in the poles to trap all this sea water inside glaciers. The higher sea levels have submerged much of the landscape, where the mountains we know have yet to form. Now, instead of towering there is one part of this European archipelago known as Süntel Island.

Like the other small parts of the land scattered throughout the warm, shallow waters, this island is subtropical. Gentle sea winds brush against a thick forest canopy, primarily made up of conifers, ginkgoes, and araucaria trees. A few of these taller plants also appear to be shorter than their counterparts on the mainland. Below, the mossy ground is blanketed in ferns, seed ferns, cycads, bushes, and horsetails. The latter bleed into the waters of the coastal lagoons along with batches of green algae, water ferns, and tiny, bullrush-like aquatic plants.

All around this island's edges is a ring of solid white sand. Steady waves ebb and flow from the sea, bringing in the many grains that make up the shore dunes. The sand becomes soft and muddy wherever these ocean waters touch the beach. With this influx of clear, liquid blue also comes a plethora of shells, originating from clams, oysters, snails, and ammonites.

The latter half of these types of exteriors offer something unique to one organism here. As they do in the modern day, hermit crabs take these old shells and use them as protection for their soft tails, whether it be from predators or the intense heat that threatens to dehydrate them. These commandeered carapaces won't grow with their ever-expanding bodies, so they're forced to find a new one whenever they grow too big. Out of all the shell types, it's often the ammonite shells that are the most popular due to providing the most defense, despite how heavy they can be for a single crab.

Upon acquiring their new exteriors, the compact crustaceans set out into the rich ocean blue. Below the surface, they are witness to a whole new world unseen from dry land. Here, the sands retain the same color as on land, but are tinted in the azure blue of the sea. In addition, dark brown rocks can be seen poking out, tinted by the green of algae suctioned onto them.

It's also in these shallow waters between islands that a wide variety of aquatic life can be seen. In addition to hermit crabs, other crustaceans in the form of their larger counterparts, are true crabs. While not related despite a deceiving name, horseshoe crabs litter the floor of these shallows, sifting up the sand as they crawl through. Snails often bury themselves in the sands, mainly spiral-shelled tower snails and larger predator snails. More stationary life rests down here in the form of oysters, clams, and lamp shells.

However, it's not just the sea floor that's teeming with life. Between the surface and the bottom of the shallows, a plethora of organisms swim about. The most common sight is various bony fish which are seen in many shapes, colors, and sizes. Cartilaginous forms are seen too in the form of rays, horn sharks, angel sharks, and guitarfish, often sticking close to the sea floor similar to their modern-day counterparts. Just like with many parts of these prehistoric seas, ammonites, spiral-shelled cephalopods, float here, too, grabbing up whatever prey their tentacles make contact with before grinding it up with their sharp beaks.

But these aren't the only animals on the hunt in these waters. Another type of predator prowls these waters, often moving at blistering speeds. Within seconds, any fish or crustacean they can catch disappears in a blurry, silver streak. They also frequently jump through the surface for air before diving back down.

These are Aegirosaurus, a common European member of the ichthyosaur order of fish-like marine reptiles. Only growing up to 6 feet in length, they're rather small compared to their numerous relatives, yet still maintain their capabilities as hunters of smaller prey. Their streamlined, torpedo-shaped bodies sport four short, paddle-like flippers for limbs, helping them to steer through the water. Other fins are present, too, in the form of their single dorsal fin and a pair that forms a crescent shape at the end of their tails. Their long, narrow heads have two large eyes and end in a pointed snout with a mouth full of needle-like teeth. The smooth, scaleless, blubbery skin is primarily a silvery white with dark, bluish-black streaks on the sides that run from their eyes and the same color on their backs and tails.

Shallow waters such as these offer a lot to such a small marine reptile as Aegirosaurus. On top of the plentiful organisms on which they feed, they're also able to safely raise their newborn calves here since most predators aren't able to follow. It's only when these much smaller youngsters get to be a certain age that they'll return to the high seas.

In one spot, it's become harder for animals like Aegirosaurus to swim through. Between Süntel Island and the mainland, the waters have begun receding as sands have pushed up further. These factors have led to the creation of a bridge between both land masses, albeit one that remains submerged in a small layer of seawater.

This stretch is the first time these coasts have been connected since the split up of Pangea nearly 50 million years prior. Such a slow reuniting of these portions of Germany has allowed mainland animals to cross onto this otherwise isolated stretch of land. The first does not enter through the land bridge but rather the air above.

It's a monumental organism that will eventually lead to the birth of a clade far exceeding the lifespan of its dinosaurian relatives. Soaring above the island's shore is a phenomenal creature known as Archaeopteryx, the "ancient wing." It's a peculiar type of dinosaur, one that not only evolved feathers, but ones that allow it to glide through the air. Eventually, its descendants will further expand on this feat in evolution and achieve the ability of powered flight. In fact, Archaeopteryx is considered one of the earliest ancestors of birds.

Like many of its modern avian relatives, this dinosaur is rather small, no bigger than a modern crow. Despite having a fully-feathered body, the bottom half of its legs are completely scaly, exposing bird-like feet with sharp talons on its toes. Its arms also end in similarly clawed-tips hands, hidden by the longer feathers that make up its wings. This same type of plumage is seen at the tip of its long tail in the form of a fan. Its head is sleek and bird-like yet retains reptilian features such as lips and small teeth embedded in a slender, slightly curved snout. The body feathers are primarily a muted brown while the ones making up its wings and tail fan are black with white tips.

As the wind beneath its wings dies down, the Archaeopteryx descends to the sandy shores of the island. There, it lands just in front of the source of a foul, putrid stench. Occasionally, the waves would bring with them dead marine life such as this decayed fish. While the smell can scarcely be bearable to many, this proto-bird is willing to ignore it in favor of having a light snack.

But the Archaeopteryx is not the only mainland animal to begin its arrival on Süntel Island. As the small dinosaur feasts, something else treks across the newly formed land bridge. Light splashes in the water occur with each step, steadily becoming louder as it draws closer to the island's shores. The Archaeopteryx glances back to find this beast approaching, one much larger than it. It's not able to take off from the ground, so it instead scurries into the forest as a method of escape.

The island's newest visitor is Gunda, a female Torvosaurus. She is a massive, predatory dinosaur belonging to the megalosaur family. As such, she sports a powerful, bulky body with a deep chest and a pair of strong hind limbs to support her enormous weight. Although much shorter, her forelimbs are similarly muscular, ending in three-fingered hands armed with long, curved claws. A lengthy, burly tail helps to balance out her immense form. Supported by her thick, moderately long neck is a long, narrow head with a blunt, powerful snout and sharp teeth lightly visible behind the lips of her mouth. Her skin is made up of rust-colored scales with black adorning her face, arms, feet, and the bands running down to the tip of her tail.

Upon stepping onto the sands of Süntel Island, Gunda passes by the dead fish. While she would normally welcome such a convenient meal, she has another goal in mind. Having already participated in the mating season, she's newly pregnant and forming the eggs of her young inside her. If she's to ensure the survival of both her and her future offspring, she'll need to find the bigger game on which to feast. It's only further inland of this uncharted territory that the Torvosaurus could hope to find what she seeks.

***

Traveling further into the island reveals more dense foliage. Sounds of waves against the sand fade away, replaced with the buzzes and chirps of crickets and dragonflies. The ground below gradually shifts from soft white sand into green moss mixed with brown dirt, loose twigs, and leaves. Parts of it also become moister from the seeping waters of nearby lagoons. The tallest trees tower above, casting shadows onto the ground.

It's also in the roots at the bottom of these larger plants that a local animal resides. One that commonly rustles through the forest floor as it travels in and out of its den. Called Storchodon, it's a type of early, rodent-like mammal. Despite being no bigger than a modern rabbit, it's somewhat larger for mammals at this time. Its lightly-built compact body sports four short yet strong limbs ending in small, clawed paws. The tail is short, but widened by a more abundant tuft of fur. Its head is proportionately small and delicate, with large eyes, tiny, triangular ears, and a narrow snout. Primarily, its fur is a grayish brown with bits of white on its face, paws, and the tip of its tail.

Like many of the mammals that lived alongside the dinosaurs, Storchodons are primarily insectivorous. Thus, it spends much of its time feeding on the abundant dragonflies and crickets in its environment. It will even snatch up the occasional spider from whatever web it can reach on the ground.

In its travel, the mammal must also be wary about avoiding the path of the island's largest residents. Lumbering through the woods, filling them with rumbles and creaking groans, are a local type of long-necked sauropod called Europasaurus. Their bodies are compact yet stocky with barrel-shaped torsos supported by four, pillar-like legs. Each one ends in a stumpy, wide foot tipped by small claw toes. The front half of these limbs is taller than the rear, giving it an upward-sloped stance. Long, tapered tails extend behind them, acting to counterbalance their overall forms. Proportionately small heads with short, rounded snouts and large, dark eyes rest atop lengthy, erect necks. Tiny, peg-like teeth fill the insides of their jaws, allowing them to strip any vegetation within their reach. Their scaly skin is primarily a greenish brown with a darker, mossy green on their backs, running from the tips of their tails to the hump-like crest atop their heads.

Similarly to the sauropods found on the mainland, Europasaurus is easily the largest animal on Süntel Island. However, despite growing up to 20 feet in length and weighing less than a ton, they're one of the smallest of their kind to ever evolve. The answer to how they evolved this way lies within their environment. Small, secluded islands like this don't have enough available food to support a land animal the size of a modern whale. Thus, the ancestors of Europasaurus shrunk over time to accommodate this new land, requiring much fewer resources to survive. Even their feeding behavior changed along with their size, now preferring to graze from the dwarf trees that populate the island in mass. This in addition to a lack of larger predators has allowed them to flourish on this remote stretch of land.

But one animal threatens the peaceful existence of these herbivores. From a thick batch of bushes near the herd, a terror from the mainland emerges: Gunda. Her approach immediately stops as she lays her eyes on the bewildering sight of the Europasaurus. Torvosaurus are the largest land predators to ever roam the continent of Europe, growing up to 36 feet long and weighing up to two-and-a-half tons. At this max size, the newly arrived female curiously outsizes the pint-sized long-necks.

Sauropods like these are common throughout the world of the Jurassic, including mainland Europe. Nonetheless, they tend to be much larger, with full-grown adults being too massive for a single Torvosaurus to take on alone. The size of these dwarf sauropods is more akin to the juveniles Gunda would prey on in her home territory. Such a discrepancy in size is peculiar to this migrant hunter, so much so that she can't help but stare at these miniature browsers. Similarly, the herbivores do the same, all while cautiously stepping backward.

This wariness, however, is simply in vain. Without hesitation, Gunda charges at the biggest of the Europasaurs. Before it can react, the dwarf quickly finds its neck trapped in the jaws of the massive hunter. She sinks her teeth in its flesh, causing it to groan as it fruitlessly attempts to squirm out of her grip. Her steady grip is quickly added to with violent shaking, making the diminutive sauropod's cries all the louder.

Mere seconds pass before the helpless Europasaurus grows silent, its body growing loose as it loses life. Only now does the Torvosaurus release her grip, causing the dwarf's corpse to fall to the ground. Frightened by the sight of their dead, crimson-stained herd mate, all other small sauropods can do now is retreat further into the island's foliage.

She'll find the rest of the herd another day, but for now, Gunda simply feasts on her easily-earned meal. On the mainland, giant sauropods use their size as a deterrent for large carnivores like Torvosaurus. With Europasaurus having shrunk down to better survive in their island environment, they have no hope of defending against such a massive predator. Now they are the under the heel of a monstrous Gulliver in a prehistoric Lilliput.

***

Nearly two years have passed since fauna from mainland Germany migrated to Süntel Island. Once again, the breeding season has come around, prompting the wildlife of this small landmass, both local and newly arrived, to begin reproducing.

Although only a month in, many of the isle's residents are already in full swing. Within holes in the trees above, Archaeopteryx have built nests in which their chicks will be fed for months. Before that time comes, they'll need to finish developing in the cream-colored eggs from which they'll eventually hatch. Young Storchodons don't have to wait so long for that as they're snugged tight in their dens, feeding on milk secreted from their mothers.

In one clearing at the center of the island where mid-day light trickles through the canopy, one local animal has just begun to set up its own nest: a Europasaurus. Normally, females like this would already have young to be watching over. However, the appearance of Torvosaurus disrupted the timing of when these dwarf long-necks began mating.

She may be late, but this hasn't stopped her from beginning the process of starting her family. Having laid a clutch of over 20 eggs, she's now begun the process of burying them in the warm, incubating dirt. Once completely entombed, the young will be safe as they develop, hatching in a few weeks.

But even as she drags soil over her unborn offspring, the Europasaurus remains alert. Predators are bound to attempt feasting on eggs such as these. And now that a larger type of predator has become a part of the local wildlife, she too can become a meal if she's not careful.

Already, the eggs have caught the scent of a carnivore, one that's endemic to the island. Lying in the shrubbery behind the Europasaurus nest is a Knoetschkesuchus. This is a small, 2-foot-long reptile that belongs to a group of terrestrial crocodilian relatives called atoposaurids.

As such, its body is elongated and low-slung, designed for slipping through the undergrowth of the island's forests. Its light, agile build is supported by four long and robust legs, each having slightly webbed feet with toes that end in small, sharp claws. The front half of these legs are shorter, giving it a slight, downward-sloped posture as it stands. A long, muscular tail grows out from its back, though isn't as broad as those of any modern crocodilians. Its proportionately small, delicate head is narrow and elongated, giving it a streamlined appearance. The jaws are full of sharp, pointed teeth, though not as conical as its extant relatives. Two large eyes positioned on the sides of its head give it a wide field of vision. Like modern crocodiles, skin is made up of rough armor and scales, primarily colored in mottled green mixed with a gray tinge.

With its size and specialized dentition compared to many other crocodylomorphs, Knoetschkesuchus has adapted to hunting smaller prey like mammals, lizards, insects, and baby dinosaurs. Thus, a freshly laid clutch of sauropod eggs is a meal that this croc would be foolish to pass up.

Cautiously, the Knoetschkesuchus creeps toward the nest. Its sprawling steps touch the ground so lightly that they make virtually no sound. Within seconds, the croc reaches within biting distance of the eggs, its mouth already drooling as it slowly begins to open its jaws.

As it does, a pile of sand gets kicked up into the face of the Knoetschkesuchus. It hisses as it shakes its head free of the many grains. The process is quick, but finishing allows the croc to find it's garnered unwanted attention. Above it, the Europasaurus stares down the small predator, letting out a rumbling groan. In response, the croc backs up slightly, spreading its legs out in a sprawling gait as it lets out a hiss.

The Knoetschkesuchus' noises quickly cease as it begins to back up further. Immediately, it retreats as a much larger shadow follows after it. The Europasaurus attempts to turn around, only to quickly find her neck caught in the jaws of the island's new queen: Gunda. Desperately, the female dwarf struggles to shake free, only to let out a high-pitched cry as sharp claws dig into her skin. The Torvosaurus then shoves her into a nearby tree, causing her to drop to the ground before succumbing to a deadly, final bite to the throat. With that, the queen of Süntel has claimed another victim, one whose flesh she immediately starts to gorge on.

As she does, another animal appears from the foliage behind her. It appears much like Gunda, but with a shorter, more rounded snout, proportionately larger eyes, and only a sixth of her size. This is Ulrich, her first and now only son.

Torvosaurus are often born from clutches of up to five eggs. However, with a higher number of young born at a time comes less odds of all of them surviving. With the threat of other predators like Knoetschkesuchus that eat youngsters like Ulrich, it has left Gunda with only one of her offspring remaining. With further competition over a food source that's begun to dwindle, feeding her son has become more and more of a challenge. Even the eggs on which Ulrich has begun to feast are starting to become less common during this season.

But another factor has come into play since Gunda's arrival, one that has already alerted her with the sounds of its heavy sniffs. Before even laying eyes on this other animal, the mother rears up over the carcass and lets out a deep hiss. Instinctively, the juvenile retreats to cover behind his massive guardian.

Gunda and Ulrich aren't the only Torvosaurus to have migrated to this island. From the cover of the foliage in front of the nest, another giant comes forth. This one is a male, rivaling the large female in size. With the influx of more Torvosaurus and the reduction in the population of dwarf sauropods, Europasaurus carcasses like the one Gunda had killed have become a rarer find, albeit steadily.

Upon seeing the mother and her juvenile, the rival Torvosaurus lets out his own deep hiss. Gunda hisses back, stomping up to the big male. Both begin to circle each other, waiting for the right moment to strike. It's a slow and steady standoff despite lasting nearly half a minute.

Only with a single movement does the pacing of the giants come to an end. Without warning, the male lunges, his widening jaws aiming for Gunda's neck. She narrowly sidesteps, countering with a swipe of her hand. He gets knocked back, spitting out blood as the female's claws scrape across the side of his face.

After a quick recoil, a rumbling snarl exits the throat of the wounded male. Frightened, Ulrich seeks cover behind a nearby tree. His mother is undeterred, responding to the larger male with her own grumbling hiss.

Immediately, both Torvosaurus charge at one another, locking their heads together as they start to bite down on each other's skulls. They tug back and forth, attempting to overpower one another. At the same time, they also begin to scratch one another with their claws, each leaving crimson gashes on the skin of their opponent.

Unexpectedly, the male manages to knock Gunda back, even if slightly. Ulrich retreats further into cover, fearing the potential outcome. Finally, the massive male begins to swing his right hand.

Suddenly, Gunda's jaws clasp onto his arm. The male lets out a loud hiss, overwhelmed by pain as he attempts to break free. Before he could try clawing her away with his right arm, the female shoves the male, causing him to trip. The ground beneath him shakes as he impacts the ground. Pain and dizziness engulf him as he attempts to stand up. Through a shaky rise, he once again meets the eyes of a growling Gunda.

The male also looks down to find a significant injury. Not only has his arm suffered many bite wounds, but it's also lost any function. No signals of movement arrive at it, leaving it to lifelessly dangle from his body.

Bloodied, bruised, and with a broken arm, the male has no choice but to escape from the clearing. As her bested rival disappears, Gunda lets out one last loud hiss for good measure. She then turns around, resuming her feast as Ulrich returns to feed as well.

Once again, Gunda has proven herself worthy of her title as the "queen of Süntel Island." Even with the threat of other Torvosaurus on the island, she manages to stand strong in defending both her kill and her offspring. However, such a reign won't last forever.

***

Over 34 years have passed since the fauna of the mainland met the smaller world of Süntel Island. In that time, much has changed in the ecosystem. One aspect can be seen in the air around it.

Since first arriving, Archaeopteryx has been able to flourish here. Not only do they populate it in great numbers, but their size has also increased, getting to be nearly two-and-a-half feet long. All this is thanks to dominating their niche as a gliding predator of small animals.

But something else has changed about this isle. What were once dwarf trees have become taller and also much more frequent. Rounded footprints are scarce on the forest floor, along with those of other animals. In their place, much more foliage had grown, concealing the ground beneath them. Even the sounds on the island are different, strangely free of the familiar creaking groans.

One animal that is almost, if not entirely, absent from this isolated ecosystem is Europasaurus. Since the arrival of Torvosaurus on this island, the dwarf sauropods have struggled to adapt to the presence of such a massive carnivore. Their ease of killing them combined it how much they need to eat to survive has accelerated the decline of a species that was already beginning to fade.

Unfortunately, the Europasaurus weren't the only animals affected by this change. One member of this harmed species is beginning to step on the sand circling its environment: a male Torvosaurus. It may not look like it, but this is Gunda's son, finally a full-grown adult. But despite being the same age as his mother when she first arrived, Ulrich has only reached a length of 28 feet in length. The drastic decline of their main food source here has made it difficult in allowing them to maintain the bulk they did on the mainland as it requires more energy. Now he and subsequent generations of Torvosaurus are progressively shrinking, both in size and in population.

Amidst this struggle, these predators have been forced to find other ways to sustain themselves. This is what brings Ulrich to the shore. Gradually, he begins to slow his approach, stopping where land meets the sea. As his feet wade in the shallow waters, his eyes scan through the crystal blue surface. Doing so allows the Torvosaurus to spot many fish swimming about. They do so steadily, seemingly oblivious to the large carnivore waiting above them. To Ulrich, these will make an excellent meal.

Swiftly, he dives his head into the water, creating a large splash as he begins snapping his jaws. Below the surface, a cloud of sand kicks up as he attempts to sink his teeth into the nearby fish. Eventually, Ulrich picks his head up, his mouth empty of any prize. He peers down again, no longer finding any fish in his immediate vicinity.

With his quarry having darted away, the Torvosaurus lets out a frustrated growl. In spite of this failure, it's only a momentary setback. Now, he starts to change his strategy. He trudges further through the water, sinking his body from just his ankles to above his knees. His approach is also a sluggish one, avoiding any sudden movements that could scare off his would-be prey.

Gradually, Ulrich halts, now setting sights on his quarry. He remains motionless like a statue, patiently waiting for the time to strike. Not only does he now creep his mouth agape, but his arms also begin to spread out.

In the blink of an eye, his stone-like stillness morphs into a swift, blurring lunge. His arm thrust toward one another as his body dips downward, creating yet another splash in the water. The Torvosaurus rises, this time with a fish hooked by his claws. His prize is massive, nearly as long as his entire skull. Such size requires Ulrich to hold it with both his hands to avoid it slipping back into the water.

With the fish flapping its tail frantically, the Torvosaurus pulls his catch to his jaws, sinking his teeth into its flesh. At first, his more serrated teeth struggle to keep his slippery prey still. Thankfully, enough punctures and scrapes end its attempts at an escape.

Over time, Ulrich and the descendants of his kind will further adapt to this newfound niche. Their heads will become narrower, their teeth more conical and their claws more hook-like. This newer group will spread throughout Europe and into parts of Asia, Africa, and South America in the form of specialized piscivores known as the spinosaurids.

For now, such destiny is millions of years away, the journey to which will not be without its struggles. Not only do Ulrich and his kind have yet to adapt to this newfound role, but they'll also have steep competition. The male Torvosaurus finds this out the hard way as an animal almost as large as he bursts from the seawater, its hissing jaws clasping onto the dead fish.

These waters are home to their own giant predator, Machimosaurus. At over 26 feet in length, it's one of the largest members of the thalattosuchians, a clade of crocodile relatives that are fully adapted to marine life. The body of this sea croc is much like that of its modern relatives but bulkier and more robust. The limbs are also more paddle-like with strong webbing between the toes. Its massive tail is muscular and flattened, ideal for propelling it powerfully through the water. The wide, flattened head has shorter jaws than those of modern crocodiles, packed with stout, conical teeth that flare slightly outward. Its skin is made up of thick scales and scutes, primarily being a green-tinged, greyish-blue with a whitish-tan on its much smoother underbelly.

With such scale and strength on its side, the Machimosaurus nearly rivals Ulrich in prowess. Having both their jaws clamped on the dead fish, the predators begin tugging at the prized carcass. Hisses and growls leave both of their mouths as they create large splashes in their tussle.

Their test of strength abruptly ends as both hunters fall backward. The Machimosaurus then swims away, a small trail of crimson following alongside. Meanwhile, the Torvosaurus returns to the sandy shore, having only half of his large size. Although it will only be a temporary satisfaction for his hunger, it will have to do until his next fishing attempt.

As is with any invasive species before and after, the presence of Torvosaurus has had a drastic impact on this northern German Island. Already having dwindling populations and being a fraction of the size of their mainland counterparts, doom was spelled for the Europasaurus the second the larger carnivores arrived. Being ill-adapted for such a drastic change in their ecosystem has forced these diminutive sauropods into extinction. Now without the Europasaurus to feed on, even the island's resident Torvosaurus population will struggle to feed and survive. Even the newfound niche discovered by those who survive like Ulrich will take more time to adapt to it than they have. To think that such an impact spawned from a single monster among dwarves.