Kaiparowits Formation, Utah, 76 Million Years Ago

The morning sun emerges, greeting a new day in life on earth. Its amber, rejuvenating light shines down on what will be Utah's Kaiparowits Plateau. The arid land as we know it in our modern day will have yet to form for tens of millions of years. Here in the Late Cretaceous, it's a wetter, more humid land bordering the Western Interior Seaway that splits North America in two.

It is a vast jungle wetland, shrouded by a canopy of magnolia trees, tulip trees, and giant pine trees. The latter tower above all the other tree types and are decorated in moonseed vines. These forested, muddy swamp lands are interspersed with alluvial floodplains and large rivers. The waters and the lands near them are decorated with water lettuce, duckweed, and floating, flowering plants. Clouds of faded fog emanate from the surface of these streams. Much of the dry ground shielded by the trees is made up of brown, moist dirt draped with tree roots, loose leaves, ferns, and laurel shrubs.

This vast, humid area is also alive with the sounds of its many residents. The chirps, tweets, and trills of birds amongst the trees. Squeaks from the many rodent-like mammals that scuttle across the jungle floors. Buzzing from the various insects that populate the air and other unseen parts of the area. Croaks, ribbits, chirps, barks, and trills of the countless frogs that call the rivers and wetlands home. Even the stranger, more unfamiliar noises of the land's dinosaurian residents are heard as well.

All this kerfuffle isn't without reason. This is a single day in one of the most important times in an animal's life, the mating season. Here, the males of various species compete with each other to decide who gets to pass their genes onto the next generation. It's not necessarily "love" in the air, but rather a shared instinct for the fauna to continue the survival of their kind.

One such species lies in the deeper woods of this ancient land. Scattered amongst the tree roots, pecking at the dirt ground, is a flock of over 20 female Hagryphus. They belong to the oviraptorosaur family known for being bird-like in appearance. Their robust, hundred-pound bodies are supported by two slender legs and balanced by a long, stiff tail. Thin, graceful necks support large, robust heads with long snouts and wide-spaced eyes. Their jaws sport a beak-like mouth, with the only thing resembling teeth being two sharp protrusions coming from the roof of the mouth. Three skinny, bird-like fingers stick out from each of their hands, ending with flattened, recurved claws.

An extensive coat of feathers colors much of their body in light brown. These are mixed with white bands across their back, arm, and tail fan feathers in addition to all white on their chests and underbellies. Only their feet, fingers, and face show exposed skin that is light gray and scaly. Their sounds are primarily deep gobbles and clucks, vaguely similar to modern turkeys and chickens.

The lives of these 8-foot-long hens are primarily spent pecking at the ground and consuming a widely varied diet. Hagryphus are unique in that rather than being solely herbivorous or purely carnivorous, they are omnivorous, eating both plants and meat. Thus, their diet primarily consists of various ferns, seeds, bugs, and small mammals.

This flock of feeding females starts to have a guest. It steadily struts out of a thick batch of tall ferns. Three-toed feet softly step across the dead leaves and exposed trunk roots. The creature hops onto a fallen log, making only a soft thud. Now, standing atop the dead wood, its identity is much clearer. Only one animal would make their presence known to a group of female Hagryphus: a male.

This rooster stands roughly as tall as an average human, slightly higher than his female counterparts. Instead of light brown, the base of his feathers is a reddish shade of brown. A brighter red colors a triangular comb of feathers that rest atop his head. The most striking difference is the front of his neck, which is primarily black with horizontal white bands running down it.

At first, the Hagryphus hens pay no mind to the rooster, focusing solely on their feeding. This only prompts the eager young male to employ his secret technique. He begins by puffing his chest and beating his arms against it. This periodic action creates soft thudding noises. Quickly, the rate of the male's chest-beating starts to ramp up. He is now flapping his arms against his chest so fast that his thumping starts to sound like a helicopter's spinning blades.

Although an odd behavior, it works to attract the eyes of the hens. As the females strut over to the rooster, he slows down his chest thumping. Then, he hops down from the log, rustling up the leaves below.

Now is the chance for the young male to make a first impression. He starts pointing his head up and stretching his neck. As he does, his neck feathers poof up, making it appear much wider. He also starts to repeatedly spring his tail up, briefly spreading out the black and red plumage of his tail fan. During this dance, the rooster circles the hen flock, letting out deep clicks and clucks. These sounds are mixed in with slow, fowl-like trills that pulse rhythmically. At this point, the attention of the females is glued to the young male, a clear success.

But it's at this moment that a challenger arrives on the scene. A rival male emerges from behind a nearby tree. This one is much older, as shown by his brighter red head comb. He too begins performing the same dance as his younger competitor. Immediately, he starts to see results as a handful of the hens step his way.

The younger rooster starts to turn his attention to the intruder and lets out a couple of squawks. Still, the older male continues his dance, wooing more of the hens. The young rooster has no choice but to end his dance and direct his attention to his more mature rival. He keeps his neck stretched with its feathers puffed out, but now drums his chest. These changes turn his dance from one of courtship to one of intimidation. The rival rooster turns away from the hens and engages in his own threat display.

Through their stretches and drumming, both males remain firm in their positions. Amid their displays, they slowly inch toward each other. Suddenly, they strike each other at blinding speed. They attack each other with bites from their mouths and scratches from their claws. Their jaws soon become locked with one another. They twist and turn their necks all around each other, all while pushing and tugging. Briskly, the two roosters break free and resume their brawl. Even with how brief their fight has been, signs of their struggle are already present with various stains of crimson mixed in their feathers.

Abruptly, the two roosters stop as they start to hear different sounds. They're not made by any of the Hagryphus, neither male nor female. Instead, they are a series of deep whooping sounds mixed in with the rustling of vegetation. Before long, the source of the sounds appears from a patch of vegetation a few feet away from the roosters.

It's a male Akainacephalus, a member of the ankylosaur family. Much like its most famous cousin, Ankylosaurus, he is a quadrupedal herbivore with bony armor covering most of his wide, stout, and elongated body. This thick, coal-colored shielding with red stripes is primarily on the top of his figure. It runs from the top of his skull to the end of its tail. Rows of gray, stone-colored spikes sprout from this armor as well as backswept ones on the top sides of its skull. A beaked mouth hides a curved row of leaf-shaped teeth, excellent for shredding tough vegetation. His elongated, stiffened tail ends with a massive, bony club. The thick, splayed legs of this animal have short feet with five toes. The scaly skin on his legs and face is deep brown while his underbelly is a light beige. Although he only stands half a foot taller than a baseball bat, his half-ton body is over four times the length of his height.

Upon seeing the Hagryphus flock, the Akainacephalus attempts to shoo them away. He does so by producing longer, more strained whoops while brandishing his tail club. All the Hagryphus, both roosters and hens alike, stand and stare at the ankylosaur in curiosity.

The Akainacephalus soon resorts to a more violent display. He swings his tail downward, causing his bony club to crash into the ground. A cloud of dirt and shards of broken roots sprout from the impact point. Spooked by the ankylosaur's powerful display, the Hagryphus flock scatters and vanishes into the woods.

Now that he is alone, the Akainacephalus resumes producing his calls. He also starts to mix his whoops with quick, deep hoots and longer whoops. The latter of these new sounds are also occasionally raised in pitch. Such sounds are allowed by a special organ in his throat, the larynx. Also known as the "voice box," it allows him and other members of the ankylosaur family to make noises at the same level of complexity as modern birds.

After nearly a minute of his calls, the Akainacephalus starts to get a response. He hears calls that are just like the ones he has been producing. However, the loudness of these calls suggests whatever made them is close... very close.

Before long, the male starts to see his potential prize emerge from behind a few trees. It is a female, slightly shorter in size and lacking the red stripes on her body armor. She greets the eager male with a series of high-pitched whooping calls. He reciprocates the same ones back as he plods ever closer to her. As an extra display of fitness, he also gently sways his tail club back and forth.

Now just a few inches away, the male Akainacephalus raises his head, exposing the bright red coloration on his throat. He also lets out low pulsing noises, causing his colored throat to expand slightly during each one. Gently, the female moves in to sniff and inspect the male's neck. It only takes her a handful of sniffs before she rubs her head against that of the male. Both Akainacephalus stroll in opposite directions as they rub the sides of their bodies together.

In the middle of this, the female lays on her side, revealing her underside. The male responds by rising onto his hind legs and mounting her. At last, the male Akainacephalus has attained a mate. However, this is only the first of many attempts to find a female with whom he'll carry his genes to the next generation.

***

Further from the deep woods of the jungle lies a series of rivers leading to the bordering sea. The yellow light of the morning sun glimmers off the liquid surface, revealing the faint fog oozing from it. It is also here where more effects of the mating season can be seen.

On the logs and branches sticking from the edge of the streams, male soft-shelled turtles climb on to inspect the much larger females basking on top. In the air, male, winged insects like flies buzz around, secreting pheromones to lure in females. On various stones poking out of the river, male frogs let out various ribbits, chirps, and screams as they wait for the arrival of their potential mates. Under the water's surface, various fish gather in masses on a journey to their spawning grounds. There the males will compete to decide which of them will fertilize the eggs of the females.

It's in these waters that Late Cretaceous Utah's biggest and deadliest resident roams. Lurking across the surface of these connected rivers is a Deinosuchus, the "terrible croc." This giant crocodilian is remarkably similar in appearance to the modern-day crocodiles and alligators it's related to. The same tough, olive-green, scaly skin, short legs with webbed feet, and long, muscular tail. Its head is also comparable to alligators, with a broad, slender snout ending in a slightly bulbous tip and a mouth full of robust, cone-shaped teeth. Even the manner in which it swims is indistinguishable from its extant relatives. Measuring 40 feet, it's twice as long as the biggest saltwater crocodile. With a weight of over 13 tons, it's also much heavier.

Deinosuchus regularly stalk the coasts of the Western Interior Seaway in search of prey to ambush. However, this one is hunting for a different purpose. Whenever the mating season arrives, males like him bulk up on food to increase their body weight. This will further his odds of finding a mate, as females only accept the largest and heaviest males. Turtles, fish, and other smaller crocodilians that share these waters are easy enough prey for this giant croc. Though, if he's going to bulk up enough, he'll need to find much larger prey.

Before long, he senses the first signs of such a quarry. A symphony of loud, honking calls echo throughout the woods. Their sound is almost metallic and unlike any living animal in the present day. This odd melody, similar in noise to a creaky metal door being forced open, is enough to shake the very earth and rattle the bones of any living animal in the area. The Deinosuchus doesn't hear the sounds themselves but rather detects the vibrations they make through the water, not unlike other crocodilians. Thus, he lets these unique reverberations guide him through the murky waters.

Down on the edge of the stream lies a muddy patch of land. One where the freshwater seeps in to split it in two. It's only lightly forested, but the mud at the bottom is shielded by a carapace of ferns, laurels, and flowering plants. This is where the noises hit their peak in volume.

These long, inquiring calls come from a group of seven bellowing beasts that stand here. They are Parasaurolophus, well-known members of the famed hadrosaur family of duck-billed dinosaurs. Their muscular, 30-foot long, four-ton, bodies have two pairs of legs, each with a different set of feet. The taller, 6-foot hind limbs sport three, padded toes that sprawl out while in contrast, the ones on their front limbs are joined in hoof-like, keratinous nails. With such a foot structure, they're easily able to switch from a four-legged stance for walking and a bipedal one for running and occasionally standing as they are now. Their torsos are squat and thick with a long, inflexible tail sprouting from them. Uniform, tubercule-like scales cover their bodies, making their skin pebbly in texture. The color of their skin is primarily basil green with thin, vertical, triangular stripes colored in dark teal on their backs. Their underbellies from their throats to the bottom of their tails are pale beige. Mid-length necks support a narrow head with large eyes and a long snout ending in a hard, duck-like beak.

Their heads are where their most striking feature lies: a prolonged, backward-curved, tube-shaped cranial crest, colored in dark purple. These bizarre structures are the secret to their loud calls. The bones of their crests are hollow and connected to their nasal passages. This allows these cranial structures to act as resonating chambers to produce deep sounds that travel for miles around them. Such adaptations effectively make Parasaurolophus a living musician's instrument.

Just one of these alone makes calls that are completely alien compared to any modern animals. A band of seven bucks creates an orchestra of metallic, honking bellows that reverberate throughout the wetland. But they don't do this just for the fun of it. The males use this as a way to signal to any nearby females. Larger, fitter bucks will produce louder calls and will have a better chance of attaining a mate.

After a minute of deep, echoing melodies, the bucks' efforts start to pay off. From the woods near their grove emerges a whole new herd of Parasaurs. These are the females, also known as does. They differ from the bucks by being slightly smaller at 26 feet in length. Their skin is also a duller, sage green that lacks the teal stripes but retains the same beige underbelly. The crests of the does are also smaller and have the same primary color as their skin.

With the does now present, the bucks start to approach them. It is now that they start the second phase of their courtship. They start by changing their sounds to lower, softer honks and rumbles.

At the same time, the bucks also start to wave their crests around. This reveals the secret behind their color. In the shadows and low light, the skin wrapping their cranial structures is a dark, muted shade of purple. But when they step into the light, the crests sparkle with much brighter shades. The shine and the dazzlement of such a display varies on the angle the sun hits them.

For many of the bucks, this strategy proves to be a success. One by one, the does rub their heads against the males as a sign of reciprocation. However, not all are proving to be quite so lucky. A lone buck named Runt stands outside of the main group, continuing his calls. Unlike the rest of the males, he's only as large as the does he's attempting to woo. His calls also fail to reach the same level of loudness as the other, larger bucks.

Eventually, Runt's noises start to die down and soften as he walks to the water, sulking. Little does the smaller Parasaur know that below the surface, the Deinosuchus lies in wait. Stiff as a log, it patiently rests on the murky bottom of the river, anticipating the right moment to strike.

Leisurely, Runt moves his head toward the water, ready to gulp it up. Unbeknownst to him, the Deinosuchus sprawls out his front limbs, ready to pounce on his prey. The small buck inches ever closer, his mouth ready and open, before abruptly pausing. Runt pulls his head away, hearing strange, soft calls. He turns backward to find an unexpected sight.

A lone doe approaches Runt, letting out a series of soft, reassuring honks. Curious, the small buck moves away from the river edge and approaches the female. Now in sight, Runt waves his crest back and forth, mimicking the iridescent shine of his competing males. Rather than ignoring him like the other does, this one is receptive to the smaller buck's advances. She rubs her face against the side of Runt's face while letting out soothing rumbles.

Before Runt can take in more of the doe's affection, a loud honk sounds. He backs away, finding himself approached by the sound's source. Standing before him is the alpha buck, the largest male of the group at 32 feet long. Such a size normally gives him dominance over the group and thus the right to most females. With such a status, he's also unwilling to share and attempts to shoo Runt away. The smaller male only continues to stand his ground and responds with his honks.

With no choice left, the alpha resorts to a more confrontational tactic. He lowers his head and charges at the smaller buck. Even with such a massive male rushing at him, Runt stands his ground. He also does something very unexpected: he bashes the large male away. This causes the alpha to lose his balance and fall to the edge of the river.

Disoriented, the alpha buck rises from the murky water. He looks to find Runt still standing with his would-be mate. Frustrated, the dominant male lets out his loudest, heartiest bellow. Such a sound is one that easily shakes bone. However, this does not save him from his untimely fate.

In the blink of an eye, the Deinosuchus shatters the surface of the river. Amidst a geyser of water, it snaps its jaws onto the neck of the alpha buck with tremendous force. The trapped male lets out a higher-pitched bellow as he struggles to break free. Such attempts are to no avail as the giant croc pulls the big buck into the stream. The Deinosuchus swims away with his lifeless prey in his jaws, a cloudy scarlet trail following alongside. This day has unexpectedly seen the end of the largest Parasaurolophus buck in this grove. Despite this, each of the remaining males, Runt included, has been able to find a mate with whom they'll soon become parents.

***

Somewhere between the coastal streams and the dense jungle forests lies a vegetated floodplain. Here, the water seeps into the soil, creating marsh puddles. The moist, muddy land around them is blanketed with grass-like ginger plants mixed with larger ferns and laurel bushes. Single magnolia trees grow here as well but are much rarer and appear only one at a time.

It is here that one of Utah's most well-protected residents thrives. In this wet field of vegetation, feasting on the greenery is a herd of sixteen Nasutoceratops. These are members of the famed ceratopsid family of horned dinosaurs. Much like their most famous cousin, they are quadrupedal animals with thick bodies and short tails. They also sport a parrot-like beak, perfect for biting off tough vegetation to be chewed by their leaf-shaped teeth. Nasutoceratops are also rather unique compared to their relatives, Triceratops included. Although as long as a white rhino and weighing a ton and a half, they are rather small for their family.

As with all ceratopsids, the biggest way they differ is with their five-foot-long heads. Their noses are particularly large, being short yet very deep. These massive snouts hide a small, stump-shaped nasal horn, colored in very light gray. By comparison, their keratinous brow horns are much longer, growing up to a foot and a half long. They are also rather unique in that rather than pointing upward like most ceratopsid horns, they instead grow from the sides before pointing forward. This way, their horns appear more akin to modern cattle, like Texas longhorns. Like all other ceratopsids, a bony frill grows out from the back of their skulls and shields their necks. They're almost circular, with the widest point being in the middle.

The edges of these frills are lined with rows of short, light-gray, bony bumps, with an extra row running down the middle. A row of larger versions of these bumps can be seen running along the back of their bodies. Their thick hide is made up of large, rough scales colored in a dark, iron gray. This coloration is mixed with horizontal, bronze stripes along the back and an abalone underbelly. Smaller versions of these stripes line the edges of their frills with an extra row through the middle.

The lives of these females, or "cows," are primarily spent on two things. First is grazing on the vast and abundant greenery that coats the floodplains they call home. The various snaps and crunches of their chewing are mixed in with various grunts, huffs, and snorts, as well as deep, moo-like bellows and honks. Their second and more important focus is on protecting their offspring, or "calves."

They differ greatly in size, each being no more than a fifth the size of their mothers. Their horns are far from fully grown, appearing as small, pointed nubs. The frills on these youngsters are reduced and bent further backward than the adults. Their skin is also a much lighter, stone gray with dull, amber-gold spots littered about.

Nasutoceratops calves are much more rambunctious than adults. They spend their days running about the wet fields, filling them with high-pitched honks. A scant few stick to the safety of their mothers and join them in their near-constant grazing. Undoubtedly, the most energetic of these babies are the little males. Their favorite pastime is to play fight with one another, often bashing each other's skulls and locking their tiny horns.

One little female calf does something different from her brothers and sisters. Being more inquisitive, she explores the space between her herd and the woods. Such curiosity brings her right to the edge of the dense forestry. She soon finds that this is not the safest place for a lone baby Nasutoceratops.

The immediate danger comes in the form of a hunter that stalks from the shadowy wilderness. Seeping morning light reveals a Teratophoneus, a carnivore with a name that means "monstrous murderer." It is a member of the tyrannosaur family of large, carnivorous dinosaurs that roam across Late Cretaceous Asia and North America. Two long legs support a muscular body with small, two-fingered arms, bird-like hips, and a mostly rigid tail. Its neck is not particularly long but it's strong enough to support a large head. The lips on this predator hide a mouth full of teeth that are long, serrated, and slightly recurved. Its scaly skin is primarily a dark, hunter green, with brighter forest green splotches and a whiter, tea-green underbelly. A sparse coat of gray feathers also sticks out from its back and neck.

With such an easy potential meal readily available, the Teratophoneus gently approaches the Nasutoceratops calf. She stands frozen in fear as the predator's grumbles vibrate through her small body. All she can do is step back and let out a loud, high-pitched honk.

As the predator starts to lunge at the calf, another honk appears out of nowhere. This one is drastically different, being much deeper and far louder. From the left of the Teratophoneus, the source of the noises charges in.

It is a male Nasutoceratops, an old bull. He is similar in appearance to the cows yet differs in a few ways. At 16 feet long, he slightly outsizes the 15-foot females. His horns also grow larger than the cows at over two and a half feet long. The left horn of this elderly male has a small tip broken off, earning him the name "Chip-horn." Instead of having bronze stripes on him like the females, he has ones that are amber colored. All over him are various cuts, bitemarks, and other scars, a reflection of his many years of experience.

One thing he has that's exclusive to bulls like him is two colored spots on his frill divided by the line in the middle. The color can be any shade of yellow, orange, or red and varies in brightness, depending on the amount of blood flushed to it. Currently, it's at an alarmingly vivid red, a clear message that means "back off." His loud honks and horn waving also help to cement the point. Such a demonstration is enough to scare the Teratophoneus back into the deep woods.

Joyed and relieved, the little calf lets out a couple of honks before rubbing herself against the face of her much older savior. Though, this isn't just any old male Nasutoceratops, but rather her father. As the dominant male, Chip-horn has fathered all the calves in the herd. Thus, one of his many duties is to look after his plentiful offspring when his harem of cows isn't.

Despite the many duties associated with Chip-horn's role, it's one that's much sought after. Now with the mating season in effect, he must guard his harem from rival bulls who wish to breed with them. Between this and his normal duties as the dominant male, the old bull remains on exhaustingly high alert. So, once his daughter returns to the herd, he retreats to the shaded cover of a lone magnolia tree. Here, old Chip-horn slumbers, waiting for any potential challengers to his title.

One byproduct of this time of the year is the addition of newly arrived females. When reaching maturity, a Nasutoceratops will leave their herd in search of a new one to form or join. This strategy is one that greatly benefits future generations. Staying within the herd carries the risk of future offspring being inbred. Thus, when leaving for other herds, they have much less risk of mating with someone they are already related to.

This year, only one female has joined the herd. Her name is Lorna and she has only recently reached sexual maturity. Being by far the youngest cow to not be a calf, she is very different from the herd, making her an outcast in a sense. She also doesn't gather with the main harem and hasn't been receptive to Chip-horn's courting attempts. This combination of factors only ensures that she's at the bottom of the herd's pecking order. So, she feeds in solitude on a patch of ferns near the forest.

This is only Lorna's first mating season as an adult, and already it is a lonely one. However, this part of her grown-up life may soon change. In the thick greenery, just a foot to her right, a rustling can be heard. This is soon mixed in with small huffs and grunts. She starts to see a pair of feet step from the foliage, each with three, sprawled out toes connected to column-like legs.

Treading out of the foliage, the animal soon reveals itself. It is another Nasutoceratops bull. This male, Maverick, is much younger than Chip-horn, being roughly the same age as Lorna. He differs from the older, dominant male by having more brightly colored lines. Another clear sign of his youth is his lack of scars, very much the opposite of Chip-horn in this regard.

Much like Lorna, this year's mating season is Maverick's first. This common factor between the two instinctively draws the young bull to her. So, he starts to woo the young cow over. Maverick starts by igniting the colored patches on his frill, creating a safety orange display. Amidst this, he lets out a series of soothing rumbles.

There and then, Lorna's interest peaks. She lets out a soft, moo-like groan as she leisurely approaches Maverick. Curiously, the cow sniffs him, detecting the rush of testosterone flowing through him. The young bull maintains complete stillness, continuing his rumbles. After a minute or so of inspection, Lorna rubs her nose with Maverick's. His first attempt at courting a female has proven to be a success.

However, the moment is swiftly brought to a premature end. A loud, honking bellow scares the two young Nasutoceratops apart. Maverick peers past Lorna to the source of the frightening noise: Chip-horn. The courtship has caught the eye of the alpha bull and he's far from happy. As per tradition, only he gets to mate with the females within his harem. Such a right is one he won't easily give up.

But Maverick is not intimidated by the elder bull's scare tactics. Rather than fleeing as old Chip-horn would like, he stands his ground. He sprawls his front legs out and starts honking while waving his horns wildly. Both males also change the color of their frill colors to an alarmingly bright Ferrari red. Chip-horn starts to rake the moist ground beneath him, first with his front feet and then with his horns. Maverick ignores these warnings and responds with the same display to the old bull.

Both males have tried all they can to scare the other away but to no avail. Now, they have no choice but to resort to more violent means. Maverick and Chip-horn start to steadily circle one another, all while huffing out misty breaths from their nostrils.

Instinctively, Lorna backs away from the angry bulls. As she does, however, she's met by unexpected guests. The other cows and their calves gather with her to observe the impending battle. This is the closest Lorna has been with the rest of the herd since first entering it, even if it is in less-than-ideal circumstances.

Nearly a minute of steady circling passes before the bulls initiate. Chip-horn and Maverick charge at one another, each with a force to match a rhino. Their skulls collide in a loud crash. Each male lets out loud honks as they attempt to push the other away. Both bulls' feet rip up the ground beneath them with their intense struggle.

Soon, Maverick manages to push away Chip-horn, almost knocking him off his feet. The old bull has many years of experience when it comes to fights like this, but his aging body won't last forever. While his younger rival is lacking in such years, he's in his physical prime.

Again, they stampede toward each other. Their sprinting feet cause chunks of torn-up ground to fly up with each step. They strike their heads together, causing their skin to shake and flap from the force of impact. With their horns locked together, they turn side-to-side. Their honks continue as they wrestle to break free.

This time, Chip-horn pushes Maverick away, causing him to lose his balance. The young bull slams into the ground, causing mud and wet dirt to erupt on impact. Old Chip-horn huffs and pants while waving his horns wildly. With a slight shake and wobble, he rises from the scarred soil.

The consequences of the fight are already starting to show. A cut has formed below Maverick's left eye, likely caused by the old bull's good horn. His right leg is stiff and shaky, likely from a sprain. While Chip-horn may not have as many injuries as his younger rival, he is starting to bleed from his nostrils like him.

With the rest of the herd looking on, the old bull doesn't hesitate in storming against the younger one. Maverick barely manages to start charging before impacting the dominant male's skull. Once again locking their horns together, they rumble and honk as they try to break free. The young bull struggles to push his old opponent, instead being scuffed backward through the mud. At this moment, he glances his eye toward Lorna, seeing her observe the fight with the other females.

Maverick only closes his eyes for a second before shooting them back open. His backward dragging stops just inches away from the trunk of a magnolia tree. With a sudden surge of adrenaline, he summons enough strength to turn the tables on the old bull. Now it is Chip-horn who is sent scuffing backward through the wet soil.

They continue to shake free of their horn lock, their skulls wobbling even faster. The struggle quickly ends but only with a loud, crunching snap. Half of Chip-horn's right horn is sent flying through the air before landing on the ground. He groans in pain as crimson drips from his nostrils and exposed horn core. Maverick seizes this moment to stampede towards the now injured old bull. He broadsides the dominant male with enough force that he briefly rises off the ground before returning with a slam.

With old Chip-horn lying exhausted on his side, bruised and wounded, the winner is clear. Maverick lets out a loud, booming honk, his first as a dominant male. The elderly bull summons only enough strength to get back up on his feet and slowly trudge away.

Blood now carefully drips out of Chip-horn's mouth, a sign of the internal damage he has suffered. With no good horns left, he's no longer able to effectively fight again. All he can do is fade into the forest before his body fails him completely. Without a herd, his last moments on earth will be spent in solus.

With the battle now ended, Maverick turns toward Lorna and resumes his courtship with her. Now, she'll be the first of many females he'll be doing this practice with. This time of the year is one of the hardest any animal can go through. Its rewards do not come easily but are well earned by those who prove themselves worthy. Once the next year inevitably comes again, these and many more animals will be ready to once again face the challenges of the mating season.