Ilek Formation, Russia, 122 Million Years Ago

The arrival of the morning sun brings with it a spill of golden rays. This shine brings a soft glow to the sky and the land below. It also mixes with the abundance of fog to create a soft haze. This light gray mix appears as a vast sea from which many forest trees stick out.

Even in modern times, such woods are a plentiful aspect of Siberia. In the early Cretaceous, it was much warmer and more humid. This change from the 53-degree, permafrost-ridden landscape allows these forests to grow abundantly.

Primarily, these canopies comprise deciduous and conifer trees, each varying in height and growth stage. Below lies a floor of ferns, cycads, and moss, bathed by a pattern of shadow and soft, dappled light. Much of this greenery is soaked in tears of morning dew, gently dragging downward by the pull of gravity. Vibrant greens and browns are sometimes blocked out by thicker patches of fog that float through.

The thickest of this midst still can't hide much of the wildlife that dwells here. Just like in modern Siberia, mammals play a part in this ecosystem. Although, they're much smaller at this point. They have yet to reach the diversity they'd achieve after the fall of the dinosaurs. Thus, they're mainly small and rodent-like, adding squeaks and chirps to the forest ambiance.

Another familiar resident in these woods are birds. By this point in the Cretaceous, they've only recently occurred, but are well on their way to becoming a common occurrence in forests like here in Russia. Their chirps, tweets, and other calls are similar to those heard in their modern descendants.

Also present here is a variety of insect life. Mosquitos dart and hover through the air, filling it with their signature high-pitched buzzes. Much of it is quickly silent as they gradually get picked off by much larger dragonflies. Crickets are another noisy neighbor to these woods, their chirps reverberating throughout. Millipedes silently crawl among the forest floor, only ever rustling the dead plant matter they tread over.

These and many other insects are the preferred food of the ancient mammalian population. In addition, they're also fed on by ancient salamanders. These stand out wildly thanks to the bright skin colors each species sports. Such adaptations won't aid them in hiding from predators, but they do signal their poisonous nature.

All these forms of lesser life are towered over by one common animal here. It steps across the forest floor, adding many coos, hoots, trills, and chirps to the symphony of natural noises. It may seem large to the many insects, salamanders, and even mammals, but it's overall, somewhat small.

This is Ivan, a Siberian Psittacosaurus. He is a type of dinosaur that inhabits much of central Asia, including China, Mongolia, and Thailand. Although, it's here in southwestern Russia that his kind grows the biggest, at 8 feet in length.

As a type of ceratopsian, he's an ancestor of the many horned dinosaurs of the Late Cretaceous, most famously Triceratops. Unlike his famous descendants, he takes a more bipedal stance rather than a quadrupedal one. This is thanks to his hind legs being strong and muscular, capable of holding his robust body and moving at quick speeds. His forelimbs are shorter, ending in hands with distinct fingers. A short, thick tail helps to balance out his sturdy form. In the middle of this appendage is a series of long, stiff, bristle-like quills. They're a golden yellow and slouch backward, looking almost like tall grass.

His head is proportionately large and triangular when viewed from above, having a broad rear and a robust snout. The front forms a sharp, toothless beak, a key feature for a dinosaur whose name means "parrot lizard." Hidden behind this beak and in his cheeks are rows of small, tightly-packed, leaf-shaped teeth, perfectly built for shredding plant matter with side-to-side chewing motions. Unlike his later relatives such as Triceratops, Ivan lacks prominent brown horns and a frill. He does, however, have low ridges above his eyes, something unique to this Russian species of Psittacosaurus. One trait he shares universally with other species is the spike-like structures that protrude from each of his cheeks. As a male, the tips of these bony extensions are colored in the same golden yellow as his quills. The other colors adorn his scaly-skinned body are mainly a light brown with black mottling all over. The same black is very prominently shown on much of his face behind his beak. This includes his nose, cheeks, and right under his large, expressive eyes. In contrast, his underside is a much paler shade of creamy beige.

In these woods, Ivan moves with a casual yet cautious gait. In between feasting on the plentiful ferns and cycads, he regularly peers above them to observe his surroundings. Such actions are crucial in a land that isn't short on potential dangers. Thus, not maintaining such alertness can potentially mean the difference between life and death.

In the blink of an eye, this behavior takes a shift. As he's foraging through a batch of ferns, Ivan starts to sniff through them. He begins to catch a familiar aroma, one that's sweet and musky. It may not do much for most residents of this Siberian forest, but it's easily alluring for any male Psittacosaurus.

Ivan alters his movements from a resting slow to an urgent swiftness. At this faster pace, his legs rapidly carry him through the woods. Periodically, he stops to sniff any remnants of the scent he's following, each instance growing stronger and stronger. In addition, he also turns his head around, frantically and with great enthusiasm.

In this constant change of attention, Ivan finally lays eyes on what he's been trailing. Highlighted in the backdrop of illuminated fog is a familiar outline. This figure is like him, another Psittacosaurus. However, this one is different from Ivan. The silhouette is of an individual slightly smaller than him with shorter cheek horns. This shape and the scent he's been following means this creature can only be one thing: a female Psittacosaurus.

Upon setting his sights on her, Ivan steadily approaches. As the curious male treads closer, the female remains unflinching. Suddenly, she turns her head to Ivan, staring directly at him. Nonetheless, he continues while also quivering his back bristles back and forth in an attempt to woo her.

In response, the female races away. While it may at first appear that Ivan scared her off, this behavior is normal. Once attracting the attention of a male, the female will test his fitness and endurance. It will only be once Ivan catches up to her that she'll be receptive to him. For now, she'll have to play "hard to get."

Promptly, the eager male follows. In a blur, Ivan rushes through the Siberian forest, through thinner woods and thicker vegetation. The scents and bits of this greenery slap across him as he charges through.

Abruptly, he stops. Through a thinner batch of vegetation, Ivan finds a familiar shape. From his point of view, it appears to be the female he's been after. Thus, he steps toward her, cautiously to avoid scaring her off.

With the snap of a twig, the silence of his steps ends. The other Psittacosaurus turns toward Ivan, revealing itself to not be the target of his chase. Instead, it's a smaller, sub-adult male, no more than 6 feet in length.

Just below him are over two dozen juveniles. Each of them is drastically smaller than Ivan, no longer than the length of his skull. Their eyes are proportionately larger, standing out on shorter heads.

The practice of caring for clusters of youngsters is quite common among sub-adult male Psittacosaurus. Not only does it prepare them for when they have to raise their own family, but it will signal their potential as fathers to potential mates. Just like actual parents, the young male is very protective of the babies. So, he barks and trills at the larger adult to deter the older intruder.

As the sub-adult continues to bark at him, Ivan pans his head around in search of the female. It only takes a few seconds before his eyes catch her rustling into a distant patch of ferns. Immediately, the eager adult male sprints away into the greenery.

***

Upon entering the cluster of vegetation, Ivan starts to find that there is more to it than what he saw from inside the woods. Just walking through reveals a massive collection of low-lying plants that goes on for potentially miles.

This isn't a patch of ferns, but a field of them. Ivan starts to stand further upward, attempting to see over the greenery. He's greeted only with the sight of fog clouding most of what lies above the vegetated valley. Such a find is one he can barely see due to how high the ferns reach.

Ivan starts to spring upward, his head rising just above the greenery. Even with this expanded view, he finds no sign of the female amongst the brush. Frantically, his head turns in every possible direction for even the faintest glimmer of the female.

In an instant, Ivan freezes as he hears the sounds of rustling amongst the plant life. To the east, his head turns, spotting ferns shaking and wavering. Retreating through them is the tip of a brown tail. At last, a sign of the female's presence.

Without hesitation, Ivan follows, racing through the brush. He may not be able to see the object of his desires in the thick field of vegetation, but he's able to still hear her rustling through it. These noises are mixed in with his rustling and multiple small birds flying out from the ferns as he sprints.

Gradually, the rustling fades into silence with Ivan stopping not long after. He once again wildly turns his head around in search of the female. As he does, a trilling sound appears along with the other Psittacosaurus briefly poking her head above the ferns.

Ivan promptly bolts towards where she appeared. All he finds upon arriving is the same wall of vegetation he's grown accustomed to. Again, the female leaps up among the greenery, triggering the eager male to follow. The further repetition of this process causes him to run in zigzagging circles throughout the field of ferns.

Soon, the female's springing ceases, prompting Ivan to slow down as he grows ever tired. He pants and huffs, a clear sign of his exhaustion. These noises are so loud, that they mask a slight rustling coming from behind the fatigued Psittacosaurus. Now, Ivan is oblivious to the approach of a new threat: a predator.

Hidden by the ferns is a Kiyacursor. This is a moderately sized dinosaur, roughly the size of a large deer. Its slender body is held up by two elongated legs that end in lengthy toes with sharp claws. The forelimbs are shorter but more flexible, ending in nimble fingers. A long, stiffened tail grows out from its rear, helping to balance its overall form. Like other members of the noasaurid family, it has a relatively long, flexible neck. It supports a small, streamlined head with large, forward-facing eyes, a narrow snout, and a mouth full of sharp teeth. The skin of this predator is scaly, mainly dark gray with a large amount of dull green mottled all over, blending it in with the ferns.

Normally, Kiyacursor would be adept at smaller prey like lizards, mammals, and birds, with some vegetation mixed in too. Larger prey like an adult male Psittacosaurus would prove to be much more of a challenge for a single one of these lengthy theropods. Fortunately for the predator, it's not alone.

From Ivan's left, another Kiyacursor springs towards him. It stops on the ground, just a couple of feet away from the Psittacosaurus. In response, he barks and trills at it while snapping his beak. The second predator remains silent, standing over its potential prey.

Meanwhile, the first of the two Kiyacursors approaches slowly. Its footsteps are so quiet that even Ivan is unaware of them as they're right behind him. Soon, it springs toward him. In response, the male Psittacosaurus simply steps and turns his tail toward his assailant. This causes the ends of Ivan's tail quills to stick into the first predator's skin. Thanks to how stiff and pointed these appendages are, full-grown Psittacosaurus can effectively defend themselves in the same way as porcupines.

The first Kiyacursor steps away, now having broken-off quill tips all over the right side of his face, neck, and chest. Ivan turns around, attacking the second predator with his beak. It hisses with pain as the Psittacosaurus' beak bears down on its leg.

With both Kiyacursors distracted by their injuries, Ivan escapes further into the fern field. In doing so, he unwittingly finds himself escaping it and emerging at the edge of one side of this Siberian forest. Among the thin collective of trees, he spots the female Psittacosaurus, tens of feet away from him as it retreats further. As he has before, the eager male follows, now cautious of what else may lie in wait on his journey.

***

Eventually, on his voyage through the ancient Russian landscape, he reaches a river. Its waters are crystal clear yet tinted blue, revealing a mosaic of small, rounded rocks at the bottom of it. Bits of brown algae float through, sometimes clinging to the rocks at the river bottom.

Simply stepping over this stream won't be an option as it's far too wide at nearly 50 feet. Thankfully, there's another way of traversing through it. The rushing waters of this brook collide with a series of gray stones. Most just barely pierce the surface of the flowing liquid, but are just large enough for a Psittacosaurus like Ivan to balance his feet on.

Though some of them are being taken up by the occasional small bird. They often use these as spots to rest while sipping up the rushing water. Thankfully for Ivan, he'll have no trouble in scaring them off while crossing.

However, a new aspect of this obstacle starts to reveal itself. A pair of jaws burst from the water in a splash with a hissing sound following it. This maw clasps onto a bird before dragging it below the surface. Startled, the other avians flutter away into the trees above.

The attacker is an amphibious predator called Khurendukhosaurus. In appearance, it resembles the crocodiles and alligators of our modern day. Despite this, it belongs to the order of choristoderes, reptiles that convergently evolved these similar traits and lifestyles.

Sprouting from its sleek, streamlined body is short and paddle-like with webbed feet to aid in swimming. Its long, laterally compressed, slightly upward-curved tail effectively propels it through the water. Like a crocodile, its head is elongated and narrow but with a more tapered snout. Unlike crocodiles, this same skull is supported by a longer neck. Rows of sharp, pointed teeth line its mouth, perfect for catching prey. Its scaly skin is much more like a lizard than a crocodile, mainly being bluish-gray with darker, solid gray spots all over the top of its body.

At up to 3 feet long, Khurendukhosaurus are rather small compared to most choristoderes, often restricting their diet to smaller animals like turtles and birds. Unfortunately, there's more than just one of these river-dwelling reptiles. Just by glancing at the water's surface, Ivan can see six of them, possibly more hiding among the rocks of the riverbed. If he's to slip while crossing the river, he can easily become a snack to these amphibious carnivores.

The male Psittacosaurus looks ahead of the Khurendukhosaurus, finding the female standing on the other side of the river. Without hesitation, he takes his first step on a stream stone. With ease, he manages to balance himself, only having a slight wobble at first. He takes a step onto another rock with the same level of grace and agility.

This effective treading successfully carries him through the path of river stones. It isn't long before Ivan finds himself halfway across the stream. However, he starts to wobble slightly, as he hears hissing and splashing. Quickly, he regains balance before searching the water around him. He finds that many of the Khurendukhosaurus have started swimming around him and toward the side of the river he came from.

The male Psittacosaurus turns around, spotting an unwelcome sight. He finds the two Kiyacursors, having followed him from the fern field. One still bears a few quill ends on its right side while the other limps on its left leg. In front of them, the Khurendukhosaurus snap their jaws at the two predators.

Despite this wall of clamping maws, the quilled Kiyacursor manages to hop past them and onto the first stone. It easily hops across each subsequent stone, much faster than even Ivan. Swiftly, the male Psittacosaurus continues his trek while still being careful not to slip. This starts to become a challenge as the rocks appear to become even wetter as the two go on.

In the blink of an eye, the quilled Kiyacursor manages to reach within biting distance of Ivan. At the same time, he begins to slip slightly, causing gravity to pull him backward. The lunging predator starts to lose balance as well, being hit by the Psittacosaurus' tail. It crashes into the river, entering the water with an erupting splash.

Ivan, thankfully, manages to restabilize. As he does, he finds another problem to overcome for this stream. A whole five feet is left for him to cross, but there are no stones left to hop onto. He only has one option left, albeit a risky one.

Suddenly, a loud hiss appears. Ivan swerves his head around, finding the quilled Kiyacursor standing partly submerged in the river water. In a final effort, the male Psittacosaurus jumps off of the final stone. The predator attempts to follow, being slowed down by the river's flowing water.

Within seconds, Ivan stumbles through the shallower water at the edge before tumbling onto dry land. Immediately, he springs up, being startled by hisses once again. He briskly turns around, finding a twist of fate. The quilled Kiyacursor trudges through the river as six Khurendukhosaurus gang up on it. Finding little worth in this pursuit, both of the Kiyacursors retreat away. With the predators out of the way, the male Psittacosaurus continues onward, ready to face whatever may lie in store for his next challenge.

***

Having gone through more of the woods, Ivan stumbles upon another new part of this Siberian landscape. Here, trees are less dense, and lower vegetation is almost non-existent. All that remains of it is dead leaves and other plant matter, blanketing the otherwise dirt and moss-covered floor. In spite of this, much more noise is present, mainly a series of distant, booming groans, faded, droning breaths, and deep rumbles.

It's also at this point that one prominent aspect of the land is starting to disappear. The fog that had been clouding ancient Russia is finally starting to fade away, making much of the distant forest much more visible. This increased clarity also allows Ivan to find the sole focus of his journey: the female Psittacosaurus. She stands still, staring at him from the middle of a narrow clearing, free of living trees and other foliage.

Eagerly and without hesitation, Ivan charges through the remaining wood between him and the female. However, she responds only by looking upward before darting into the woods of the opposite side. He stops himself, tilting his head to the side. At the same time, the sounds he was alerted to earlier start to increasingly become louder. He then hears another one of these calls, one so loud that it seems to be almost next to him. The male Psittacosaurus turns to his left, finding a scaly, pillar-like leg coming down over him. He trills before stepping backward. The foot of the leg narrowly misses him, creating a thunderous thud upon impacting the ground.

Ivan opens his eyes back up, his face covered in dead leaves. He immediately shakes them off before getting off the ground. More of the mysterious noises appear in front of him, causing the male Psittacosaurus to gaze upward. He finds a herd of colossal animals crossing the clearing right in front of him.

These are the giants of Siberia, Sibirotitan. They are Russian members of the famed sauropod clade of dinosaurs. Their enormous, barrel-shaped bodies are supported by four, columnar legs. Long tails grow out from their backs, tapering to a flexible, whip-like tip. By far the feature that stands out most is their thick, elongated, graceful necks, held up in a slanted posture akin to the outreaching branches of a tree. Such a lengthy appendage supports a relatively small, square-shaped head with a broad, flat snout and jaws equipped with peg-like teeth. Their scaly skin is primarily a dark, yellowish green with black on top and a solid gray underbelly.

Reaching nearly 40 feet in length, the Sibirotitans are easily the largest animals to roam this Russian landscape. Weighing up to 10 tons, their footsteps are heavy enough to create echoing crashes upon impacting the ground. With such staggering size, they could easily crush anything unlucky enough to be beneath them, even a full-grown Psittacosaurus.

These factors easily make this obstacle the biggest and most challenging that Ivan has yet faced. He looks both to his left and right, only to find yet more of the Sibirotitan herd. Even if he could walk around them, he could risk losing the female Psittacosaurus in the time it would take to do so. Thus, his only option is to run through. Such a strategy won't be easy as the herd is enormous and still moving through the clearing. If he's not careful, he could risk being crushed to death.

In an instant, Ivan begins his sprint. The rustling of the dead leaves beneath him is masked by the calls and footsteps of the massive dinosaurs ahead of him. This only ensures that his entrance into the moving herd is a silent one.

Amongst the traveling sauropods, Ivan moves with less speed but more caution. With every stomp of the giants around him, he darts further, often scarcely avoiding the next foot. His success only continues as he navigates through the moving maze of pillar-like legs.

Nearly a minute of careful traversing passes before Ivan manages to reach the halfway point of the clearing. Here he can clearly see the other end of the woods where the female left. Before the eager male could dart to his destination, two feet stomp down in front of him. They don't lift like the other passing legs, but just stay there. At the same time, much louder grumbling occurs, vibrating even Ivan on the inside.

They slowly step to their side as a pair of legs behind the male Psittacosaurs lift off the ground. He swerves out of the way, just as the feet stomp onto the ground, landing with a loud crash. The surprise of such an impact knocks Ivan onto his side. This only lasts for a second as the giant legs step back again, followed by the same powerful stomp from a different pair.

Above him, two Sibirotitans have engaged in a shoving competition. Sometimes this can be for playful purposes to strengthen social bonds. However, with how narrow the clearing is compared to the size of the overall herd, this is an act out of anxiety.

As a result, more Sibirotitans start to do the same thing as they grow increasingly nervous. Such chaos only makes crossing through the herd a bigger challenge for Ivan. Now he has to dodge the falling steps more frequently, making his progress ever slower.

Suddenly, one foot kicks the male Psittacosaurus to the side. He tumbles onto the rolling across the ground, narrowly avoiding more steps from the Sibirotitans. Ivan quickly stops, now lying on his back. From this view, he finds another giant foot coming down on him. Quickly, the male Psittacosaurus rolls to his right, only just avoiding the titan's thunderous thud.

Dizzy, Ivan stands back up, shaking his head free of leaves and dirt. He looks behind him, ready to maneuver around yet more giant legs. To his shock, he finds none. All he sees is the side of the forest that he had been traveling to. It's only when he looks back to his left that he finds the passing Sibirotitan herd. Finally, he's made it across, having conquered his toughest hurdle yet. Now, the male Psittacosaurus is free to jog further into the woods.

***

Before long, Ivan reaches another dense part of this Siberian wilderness. Just like the area where his journey started, both trees and vegetation are found in mass. Although he's long passed the Sibirotitan herd, their calls still reverberate through the forest.

As the male Psittacosaurus travels through, he grows ever slower. Loud, huffing pants leave his mouth. His tongue darts in and out as his head lays downward. Gradually, his slowed walking ceases with a forward fall to the ground. It's been a long run for Ivan, one filled with many dangers to maneuver himself around. He may have yet to find the female he's been chasing after, but he's more than content with taking a brief rest.

Suddenly, Ivan's heavy breaths stop as his head perks upward. Huffing swiftly transitions into sniffing among the ferns. For the first time in a long while he's caught the scent of the female's musk.

The male gets up only slightly, ensuring that his head remains low to the ground. This posture remains unchanged as he steps through the greenery. His movements are relentless, only stopping once his beak lightly touches something unknown. Gently, Ivan lifts his head out of the fern bed. As his eyes peer above the foliage, he finds another Psittacosaurus moving its head in sync with him. He takes a step back to see the full animal in front of him.

This isn't just any other Psittacosaurus, but the female he's chased after. The two immediately greet each other with soft trills as they gaze into each other's eyes. This moment is only brief as they begin a crucial part of their courtship ritual.

The two Psittacosaurus start to follow one another in a circle. As they do, they closely inspect a crucial part of their anatomy, their scent glands. These structures appear in the form of black bulges around their cloacas. From there, they're able to produce the unique musk that identifies them as male and female. During courtship, they also allow the Psittacosaurus to further assess one another by simply sniffing them.

The pair only take in a few sniffs of the other's glands before turning to each other face-to-face. This interaction quickly becomes physical as they begin to rub their heads with one another. They do so carefully, each avoiding scratching the other's skin with their cheek horns. At last, Ivan has won himself a mate.

The lengths one male animal will go to impress a female are often staggering, even for something as small as a Psittacosaurus. Through endurance and other deadly challenges, Ivan has been able to show he is more than capable of winning over his newly found partner. Now, he'll be able to father a new generation of these agile herbivores, a more than worthy prize for such a mad dash.