During its early years, the war between the new Republic of India and the Naga took on all the hallmarks of a guerilla conflict. After a series of escalating events, the Indian army poured 100,000 troops into the isolated and rugged Nagalim in 1956. They assumed their overwhelming forces would subdue the Naga fighters, and thus end the conflict in a matter of weeks or possibly months.

The Nagas disagreed with the Indian assessment. With the help of the Naga National Council (NNC), the loosely knit Naga tribes rallied together with surprising speed and efficiency during the years after declaring independence in 1947. By 1956, they had formed the Federal Government of Nagaland and the Naga Home Guard. Soon after India launched their first major offensive, the Naga began countering with guerilla tactics.

It turned out the British had taught the Naga a handful of valuable lessons. One of those lessons had been that people outside of Nagalim have unexplainable ambitions to acquire lands not their own. Some Nagas had traveled broadly during WWII while fighting for the Allied forces. They had seen enough to understand the outside world would not leave them alone without a fight.

When India came in force, enough Nagas were ready. They plunged into the jungle and invited the inexperienced Indian conscripts to come after them. Naga fighters routinely raided arms caches. They made a practice of stripping captured Indian soldiers of their weapons and gear just to send them home. This behavior insulted the Indian government further.

Accustomed to a style of tribal combat between neighbors and distant relatives, the slaughtering of their foe made little sense to Nagas. Contrary to popular belief, their headhunting ancestors had removed the heads of fallen enemies to demonstrate prowess as well as respect. The soul, or center, of a human resided in the head. To Nagas, taking human life indiscriminately and disrespecting the bodies afterward, according to the manner observed in WWII, seemed barbaric.

 As the violence increased, Indian forces frequently abandoned their attempts to confront Naga guerillas directly. Instead they attacked and burned villages. To assist in the legality of these practices, the dreaded Armed Forces Special Powers Act (based on a British ordinance from 1942) was passed by the Parliament of India in 1958. The act essentially granted any and all military personal within designated “disturbed areas” the right to do whatever they deemed necessary to regain the peace without fear of legal reprisal.

As a result, a relentless string of unspeakable atrocities scarred Nagalim for a decade. Incensed and insulted by the ferocity of Naga resistance, Indian officers ordered the rape and murder of women and children. They burned villages repeatedly. Many Nagas claim not a single village survived the 50’s and 60’s without being burned at least once. Some villages, like Khonoma, were reportedly burned several times.

Since most of the people with firsthand experience of these atrocities have already died, it’s likely the larger world will never know the exact details of these dark times.

In 1964 a ceasefire was signed between the Naga National Council and the Government of India. During the two years that followed, it appeared a resolution might be possible. But ultimately, the Naga broke off the talks when the Indian offerings fell short of total autonomy.

Depending on who is asked, opinions on the ceasefire vary widely. Some say the ceasefire was never genuinely honored. Some say it broke off in 1967 with the end of the peace talks. Others insist it still continues today.

While the violence never again reached the same terrible degree and scale as during the late 50’s and early 60’s, it is certain the violence did not end. Neither did the Naga’s unyielding resolve. The caste system of India could not accommodate their comparatively egalitarian society. They had no other home. Thus they chose to fight for self-determination and autonomy until the death.