Question 6. The Aristotelian system was the broad term used to refer to the traditional view of the world expressed during the age of Aristotle by the ancients, and maintained and modified by the Church to fit with religious doctrine throughout the Middle Ages. The Aristotelian system included accepted truths about biology, physics, and most notably, astronomy. Many of these "truths" were proven wrong during the Scientific Revolution.  In the Aristotelian system, form and matter together constitute concrete individual realities; the Platonic system holds that a concrete reality partakes of a form (the ideal) but does not embody it. Aristotle believed that form caused matter to move and defined motion as the process by which the potentiality of matter (the thing itself) became the actuality of form (motion itself). He held that the Prime Mover alone was pure form and as the "unmoved mover" and final cause was the goal of all motion.

Question 7. Darwinism is a set of movements and concepts related to ideas of transmutation of species or of evolution, including some ideas with no connection to the work of Charles Darwin.[1][2][3] The meaning of "Darwinism" has changed over time, and varies depending on who is using the term. Darwinism designates a distinctive form of evolutionary explanation for the history and diversity of life on earth. Its original formulation is provided in the first edition of On the Origin of Species in 1859. This entry first formulates ‘Darwin's Darwinism’ in terms of five philosophically distinctive themes: (i) probability and chance, (ii) the nature, power and scope of selection, (iii) adaptation and teleology, (iv) nominalism vs. essentialism about species and (v) the tempo and mode of evolutionary change. Both Darwin and his critics recognized that his approach to evolution was distinctive on each of these topics, and it remains true that, though Darwinism has developed in many ways unforeseen by Darwin, its proponents and critics continue to differentiate it from other approaches in evolutionary biology by focusing on these themes. This point is illustrated in the second half of the entry by looking at current debates in the philosophy of evolutionary biology on these five themes, with a special focus on Stephen Jay Gould's The Structure of Evolutionary Theory.

Question 8. 'The Industrial Revolution' refers to a period of massive economic, technological, social and cultural change which affected humans to such an extent that it's often compared to the change from hunter-gathering to farming. At its simplest, a mainly agrarian world economy based on manual labour was transformed into one of industry and manufacturing by machines. The precise dates are a subject for debate and vary by historian, but the 1760/80s to the 1830/40s are most common, with the developments beginning in Britain and then spreading to the rest of the world. By the 1780s, the British Industrial Revolution, which had been developing for several decades, began to further accelerate. Manufacturing, business, and the number of wage laborers skyrocketed, starting a trend that would continue into the first half of the 19th century. Meanwhile, technology changed: hand tools were replaced by steam- or electricity-driven machines.

The economic transformation brought about the British industrial revolution was accompanied by a social transformation as well. Population boomed, and demographics shifted. Because industrial resources like coal and iron were in Central and Northern England, a shift in population from Southern England northward took place. Northern cities like Manchester grew tremendously. These changes in social and demographic realities created vast pressure for political change as well. The first act to protect workers went into effect in 1802 (though in practice it did very little). Pressure to redress the lack of representation for the new industrial cities and the newly wealthy industrial manufacturers also began to build.

Britain, with its head start in manufacturing, its many world markets, and its dominant navy, would dominate industry for most of the 19th century. Towards the end of that century, the United States and Germany would begin to challenge Britain's industrial power.

Question 9. The Paleolithic (or Palæolithic) Age, Era or Period, is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools discovered and covers roughly 99% of human technological prehistory. The paleolithic began about 2.5 to 2million years ago, marked by the earliest use of tools made ofchipped stone. The Paleolithic Period ended at different times indifferent parts of the world, generally around 10,000 years ago inEurope and the Middle East. Also called  Old Stone Age . ◇ TheLower Paleolithic is by far the longest division of this period,lasting until about 200,000 years ago and characterized byhammerstones and simple core tools such as hand axes and cleavers. ◇ The Middle Paleolithic is generallydated to about 40,000 years ago and is associated with archaicHomo sapiens, primarily the Neanderthals and their Mousteriantool culture. The tools produced during this period representimprovements on those of the Lower Paleolithic, especially inflaking techniques, but remain little changed throughout theduration of the period.

 ◇ The Upper Paleolithic  dates to about10,000 years ago in Europe and the Middle East and is associatedwith modern Homo sapiens . Various distinctive local tool culturessuch as the Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian flourishedduring this relatively brief period, producing a great variety ofskillfully flaked tools as well as tools made of bone, antler, wood, and other materials.

Question 10. The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world.[1] It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age. It ischaracterized by the beginning of farming, the domestication ofanimals, the development of crafts such as pottery and weaving,and the making of polished stone tools. The Neolithic Period isgenerally considered to end for any particular region with theintroduction of metalworking, writing, or other developments ofurban civilization. Also called  New Stone Age .. The Neolithic is a measured progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals.

Question 11. In anthropology and archaeology, the Urban Revolution is the process by which small, kin-based, nonliterate agricultural villages were transformed into large, socially complex, urban societies. The term "urban revolution" was introduced in the 1930s by V. Gordon Childe, an Australian archaeologist. Childe first discussed the Urban Revolution in his 1936 book, Man Makes Himself,[1] and then his 1950 article in the journal Town Planning Review[2] brought the concept to a much larger audience. In that paper, he presented a 10-point model for the changes that characterized the Urban Revolution:

1.     Large population and large settlements (cities)

2.     Full-time specialization and advanced division of labor

3.     Production of an agricultural surplus to fund government and a differentiated society

4.     Monumental public architecture

5.     A ruling class

6.     Writing

7.     Exact and predictive sciences (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, calendars)

8.     Sophisticated art styles

9.     Long-distance trade

Question 10: The state

Although sometimes interpreted as a model of the origins of cities and urbanism, Childe's concept in fact describes the transition from agricultural villages to state-level, urban societies. This change, which occurred independently in several parts of the world, is recognized as one of the most significant changes in human Sociocultural evolution.

Question 12

500- 300 BC

The Hellenic Period is the "classic" period of Greek culture.  In the period between the defeat of the Persians and the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greece enjoyed a cultural flowering and economic prosperity seldom matched in the ancient world.  Drama, philosophy and sculpture all began or underwent significant refinement in this period.

Question13. The Hellenistic period or Hellenistic era describes the time which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. It was so named by the historian J. G. Droysen. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia. It is often considered a period of transition, sometimes even of decline or decadence,[1] between the brilliance of the Greek Classical Era and the emergence of the Roman Empire. Usually taken to begin with the death of Alexander in 323 BC, the Hellenistic period may either be seen to end with the final conquest of the Greek heartlands by Rome in 146 BC; or the final defeat of the last remaining successor-state to Alexander's empire, the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt in 31/30 BC, after the Battle.[2] The Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of colonists which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.[3]

Question 14.Steam engine is a machine using steam power to perform mechanical work through the agency of heat. In a steam engine, hot steam, usually supplied by a boiler, expands under pressure, and part of the heat is converted into work. The remainder of the heat may be allowed to escape, or, for maximum engine efficiency, the steam may be condensed in a separate apparatus, a condenser, at comparatively low temperature and pressure. For high efficiency, the steam must fall through a wide temperature range as a consequence of its expansion within the engine. The most efficient performance—that is, the greatest output of work in relation to the heat supplied—is secured by using a low condenser temperature and a high boiler pressure. The steam may be further heated by passing it through a super heater on its way from the boiler to the engine. A common super heater is a group of parallel pipes with their surfaces exposed to the hot gases in the boiler furnace. By means of super heaters, the steam may be heated beyond the temperature at which it is produced by boiling water.

Question 15 A telegraph is any system that transmits encoded information by signal across a distance. Although it is associated with sending messages via an electric current, the word telegraph was coined to describe an optical system of sending coded messages. From its invention until the telephone became a viable system, the telegraph was the standard means of communicating both between and within metropolitan areas in both Europe and the United States. Telephones did not make the telegraph obsolete but rather complemented it for many decades. Telegrams and telexes used telegraphy but are rapidly being replaced by facsimile (fax) transmissions through telephone lines. Satellite transmission and high-frequency radio bands are used for international telegraphy.

There were several steps towards the invention of the telegraph. 

·                                 The non-electric telegraph was invented in 1794 by Claude Chappe. This system used semaphore, rather than electrical signals along a wire, as later telegraphs did. 

·                                 A simple form of electric telegraph using liquid and the concept of electrolysis was invented in 1809 by Samuel Soemmering of Bavaria. This was not a commercially viable product, but it showed how electrical signals could be transmitted.

·                                 In 1825 William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, which would later play a big part in the transmission of signals via telegraphs.

·                                 In 1830, Joseph Henry used Sturgeon's concept of the electromagnet to send communication signals along a wire. 

·                                 The electric telegraph itself, which came to be the mainstay of 19th century communications, was investigated and improved upon from around 1835 by Samuel F B Morse. In 1843, the first experimental telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore was constructed, using Morse's concepts.

·                                 In 1893, the wireless telegraph was invented by Guglielmo Marconi.