Question 1. The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London". The Society has three roles: it is the UK academy of science promoting the natural and applied sciences, a learned society, and a funding agency. The Society today acts as a scientific advisor to the British government, receiving a parliamentary grant-in-aid. The Society acts as the UK's Academy of Sciences, and funds research fellowships and scientific start-up companies. Royal society aims to expand the frontiers of knowledge by championing the development and use of science, mathematics, engineering and medicine for the benefit of humanity and the good of the planet. Some of the most excellent scientists of RS are Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Ernest Rutherford, and Albert Einstein… Their priorities address the future of science in the UK and beyond. RS aims to invest in future scientific leaders and in innovation; influence policymaking with the best scientific advice; stimulate science and mathematics education; increase access to the best science internationally; and inspire an interest in the joy, wonder and excitement of scientific discovery.

Question 2. Sir Isaac Newton (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries and is the basis for modern engineering. He showed that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.

In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and developed a theory of color based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into a visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.

In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

In a 2005 poll of the Royal Society of who had the greatest effect on the history of science, Newton was deemed more influential than Albert Einstein.

Question 3. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism.

His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.

Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system.[9] He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[9]The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could only be supported as a possibility, not as an established fact.[9][10] Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[11][12] It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77.

Question 4.  The doctrine of uniformity was an enormous step in the quest to integrate physics and astronomy. Developed by Galileo in his Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, the doctrine of uniformity states that corresponding causes produce corresponding affects throughout the universe. Thus, terrestrial physics may be used to explain the motion of heavenly bodies.

Question 5. The law of universal gravitation is one of the most fundamental laws in the Universe and one of the great discoveries of physics. In many ways you can say the true beginning of modern physics began when the classical physicists Sir Issac Newton published his discovery. Sir Issac Newton stated in his law of gravitation that every object in the universe that has mass is drawn to one another. The pull of two objects on each other depends largely on two factors. The first is the mass of the two objects in the observed system and their distance from each other. The greater the mass or the shorter the distance the more powerful the pull of gravity. However Newton did not attempt to explain why this is so. He only stated and described the mechanics of an observed natural phenomenon. He did not try to find out what caused it to happen. So looking at these two explanations we see how gravity works in every day life and in space. We understand that things fall to the ground because Newton explains they are falling towards the center of mass that is the greatest. On the cosmic scale the reason planets, stars, and other celestial bodies move in circular orbits is because curves in the fabric of space-time.